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Background: The relative values of secondary metabolites may be impacted by harvesting time and post-harvest drying methods. Objective: The effects of various harvesting stages of flower and drying methods were investigated on the quality and quantity of secondary metabolites of A. chamissonis Less. grown in the field. Methods: The flowers were harvested in early May, June and July from four different developmental stages (stage 1: opening bud; stage 2: all radial florets or less than half of tubular florets opened; stage 3: all radial and tubular florets opened; stage 4: radial florets withering and seed formation). Also, the maximum collection of inflorescences during two years of trial was considered for drying method treatments (shade and sun drying, oven drying at 40 and 50 °C, and microwave drying at 500 and 1000 W power). Results: Results showed that the highest and the lowest total phenols were obtained in the second and first harvest date at flower maturity stages of 3 and 4, respectively. However, the highest luteolin and apigenin contents were obtained in the third harvest time at flower development stage 1. In the second experiment, the flower heads treated by shade contained the highest total phenols content followed by oven drying at 40°C. Moreover, oven drying was the most favorable method for preserving of other main secondary metabolites including total flavonoid, rutin, luteolin and apigenin. Conclusion: Different harvesting dates at various flower bud phenological stages had significant effect on total phenols, flavonoids, rutin, luteolin and apigenin contents.

Environmental factors shape the production and accumulation processes of plant secondary metabolites in medical and aromatic plants and thus their pharmacological and biological activity. Using an environmental metabolomics approach, we determined chemotypes and specific compounds on the basis of essential oils (EOs) from roots of 10 Iranian Ferula assa-foetida L. populations and related them to geographical, climate, and edaphic data. GC-MS revealed three distinct chemotypes characterized by (I) monoterpenes and Z-1-propenyl sec-butyl disulfide; (II) eudesmane sesquiterpenoids and α-agarofuran; and (III) Z- and E-1-propenyl sec-butyl disulfide. NIRS measurements indicated a similar but less distinct pattern. Structural equation models showed that EO constituents and content were directly influenced by edaphic factors (texture, pH, and iron, potassium, and aluminum content) and temperature and predominantly indirectly by latitude, longitude, and altitude. Predicting EO constituents or chemotypes by geographical, climate, and soil factors can be used in F. assa-foetida to select populations with specific EO characteristics.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L. is an herbaceous, perennial plant with high distribution in Iran. Genetic variability, heritability and correlation among characters in 22 populations of G. glabra L. were studied. The genetic parameters among the traits including phenotypic variances, genotypic variances, genotype by environment variances, broad-sense heritability and genotypic and phenotypic correlation coefficients were studied. Variance components analysis showed that the extent of phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was fairly higher for all the examined traits compared with genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV). Glabridin (GLA) exhibited high GCV and PCV (156.07% and 156.68%, respectively). The broad sense heritability varied from 38.92–99.79% and narrow sense heritability ranged from 9.70 % to 24.94%. Heritability of GLA, glycyrrhizic acid (GLY), liquiritin (LI), liquiritigenin (LIQ), rutin (RU) and rosmarinic acid (RA) were very high, exhibiting more than 97% heritability. Therefore, these critical characteristics can efficiently be selected and inherited in breeding programs. In most traits, the genotypic correlations showed the same direction as the phenotypic correlations. The contents of GLA and LIQ showed a positive correlation with majority of morphological traits. Therefore, selecting individual plants having desired morphological traits can be correlated with high contents of bioactive compounds in the harvested root.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) of both biologically and chemically origins trigger various physiological and metabolic processes through interaction with plant cells, exerting positive, negative and inconsequential effects. However, their impacts on plant systems must be critically investigated to guarantee their safe application in food chain. In this study, the effects of chemically synthesized (synthetic) AgNPs (sAgNPs) and biologically synthesized (biogenic) AgNPs (bAgNPs) on physiological and biochemical features of Eschscholzia californica Cham were evaluated at different concentrations (0, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg L-1). Plants exposed to bAgNPs (at 10 and 25 mg L-1) and sAgNPs (at 10 mg L-1) displayed relatively uniform deposition of AgNPs on leaf surface, however, the higher concentration (100 mg L-1) was accompanied by aggregation of AgNPs, resulting in anatomical and physiological disorders. Foliar application of both AgNPs at lower concentrations resulted in significant (P

Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae) is a perennial herb including valuable and commercial constituents such as glycyrrhizic acid and glabridin which has attracted the attention of food and pharmaceutical industries. In the present study, a variation on the phytochemical and antioxidant activity of 22 populations of valuable and profitable medicinal plant Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice) was investigated. We expanded our approach by using geographic information system (GIS) to predict the potential areas for licorice cultivation in Iran. Outstanding quantitative variability of glycyrrizic acid, glabridin, liquiritin and liquiritigenin content were observed in the cork and fleshy texture of root of licorice populations from different regions of Iran. The maximum and minimum amount of glycyrrhizic acid was observed in Bajgah (74.00 mg/g dry weight) and Taft (13.43 mg/g dry weight) populations, respectively. The greatest amount of glabridin content was recorded in Kashmar population (12.88 mg/g dry weight). Also, the greatest antioxidant activity (the lowest IC50) for licorice root was associated to Kashmar, Meshkin shahr and Eghlid populations with IC50 equal to 44.4, 56.5 and 59.5 μg/ml, respectively. Moreover, Kazerun, Taft and Ahar populations had remarkable antioxidant activity in a methanolic extract of aerial part. Consequently, frequency ratio (FR) model was run to mapping the habitat suitability of Glycyrrhiza glabra based on annual average temperature, average yearly precipitation and altitude.

The Verbascum L. genus (Scrophulariaceae) is rich in phenols, flavonoids, and iridoid glycosides, which have been used extensively in traditional medicine. This study aimed to examine the association between genetics and metabolomics of V. songaricum populations (VSPs), collected from different geographical regions of Iran for further breeding and exploitation programs. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis showed a significant difference among the twelve studied VSPs, which were classified into five main groups based on an unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic and principal coordinate analysis. Ninety-six bands were produced by fourteen ISSR primers, among which 92.7% of them were polymorphic at the species level. The essential oils were analyzed by means GC–FID and GC–MS and five main chemotypes, including docosane (I), methyl chavicol (II), methyl eugenol (III), β-damascenone (IV), and α-bisabolol (V) were characterized. HPLC–PDA–MS was further used to detect and to measure the phenolic compounds and harpagoside content in methanolic extract of VSPs. The main compounds identified in the VSPs extracts were rutin, quercetin, rosmarinic acid, salicylic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, 2, 5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 3, 4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, and harpagoside. Cluster analysis based on phytochemical data divided VSPs into nine groups. Subsequently, data were analyzed by multiple regression analysis to identify the correlation between genetic and metabolic diversity. The phytochemical data as the dependent variable showed significant association with bands obtained from molecular data. The high variation observed in essential oils, phenolics, and harpagoside among the VSPs establish a good potential to select the best genotype in breeding projects.

Background: The increasing amount of sewage sludge (SS) and more legislative regulation of its disposal have stimulated the need for developing new technologies including gamma irradiation to recycle SS efficiently. Objective: To evaluate the effects of gamma irradiated and non-irradiated SS (SSGI and SSNI, respectively) on essential oil (EO) content and composition of Ocimum basilicum L. Methods: A greenhouse experiment was conducted with 15, 30, and 60 g kg-1 of SS irradiated with absorbed doses of 5, 10, and 20 kGy gamma-ray and soil without SS and irradiation as the control treatment. The essential oil was isolated by hydro-distillation and analyzed by Gas chromatography and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques. Results: The applications of SSGI and SSNI at all levels except 15 g kg-1 significantly enhanced EO content compared to the control. The using of 60 g kg-1 SS in each absorbed dose significantly reduced EO yield relative to the control, while it was significantly increased under 15 and 30 g kg-1 SSNI and SSGI. Also, in 60 g SS kg-1, the restriction effects on EO yield were mitigated with increasing the absorbed dose of gamma-ray, but it was insignificant with increasing absorbed dose to 10 and 20 relative to 5 kGy. The methyl chavicol as a major constituent of EO was significantly increased in SSGI and SSNI as compared with the control. However, the increment in the methyl chavicol content was not significant between the treatments ≥ 30 g kg-1 SSGI or SSNI and 15 g kg-1 SS at absorbed dose of ≥10 kGy. 98 Conclusion: To improve essential oil content and composition, application of ≤ 30 g kg-1 sewage sludge with 5 kGy absorbed dose of gamma-ray can be suggested at similar conditions.

Remarkable quantitative variability of rosmarinic acid (RA) among and within wild populations of Satureja rechingeri has previously been investigated. In the following domestication process of the plant and in order to identify the superior varieties for the mass cultivation, the agro-morphological characteristics, total phenols, total flavonoids, RA content and antioxidant activity of the 82 cultivated clones of the plant were presently evaluated. The highest content of RA was observed in clones of G99 (7.22%), K22 (6.47%) and G92 (5.13%), respectively. The highest drug (leaves and flowers) yield was recorded in the clones of E77, E96 and E104 with 200, 182.9 and 178 g/plant, respectively. Multivariate statistics were used to categorize and interpret the data of antioxidant parameters and agro-morphological specifications of the clones. Superior varieties in the studied traits can be extensively cultivated in the agricultural systems and used in food and pharmaceutical industries.

The effluent and sludge samples collected at the Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant of Southern Tehran were irradiated with doses of 5, 10 and 20 kGy using a 60Co gamma source and without irradiation (control) in a completely randomized design with three replications. In the term of total and fecal coliforms load, the gamma ray was more effective in the effluent disinfection than in the sludge. Approximately, three logs reduction in total and fecal coliforms were observed at the dose of 20 kGy in the sludge. The complete inactivation of the coliforms load in the effluent was achieved by 10 kGy gamma ray, whereas for sludge, it was not achieved even at 20 kGy. The improvement in the irradiated effluent quality was demonstrated by the significant reductions in chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand, turbidity, pH, EC and concentrations of nitrate and phosphate. The other characteristics of the effluent and sludge did not change and/or changes did not show any trend as a result of treatments except concentrations of nitrogen and copper in the sludge and calcium and potassium in the effluent. The results proved that gamma ray can be applied as an effective technique for the reuse of effluent and sludge in agricultural soils.

Irradiation of sewage sludge (SS) with gamma-ray is regarded as a promising alternative and rapid method for risk mitigation of this waste in ecosystems. The effects of 13 treatments (15, 30, and 60 g kg−1 of non-irradiated SS and irradiated with doses of 5, 10, and 20 kGy gamma-ray and soil without SS and irradiation as the control treatment) was investigated on the growth, herbage yield, leaf chlorophyll index, and concentrations of macronutrients in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) root and shoot in a completely randomized design with three replications under greenhouse conditions. The results showed that application of gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated SS positively affected the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium in basil shoot and root. The highest and lowest dry weights of root and shoot, plant height, leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll index were observed in 30 g kg−1 SS irradiated with 20 kGy absorbed dose and 60 g kg−1 non-irradiated SS, respectively. In ≤ 30 g kg−1 SS, the gamma irradiation absorbed dose did not significantly change the growth parameters, thus the use of ≤ 5 kGy absorbed dose may be suggested to stimulate positive effects on basil growth. Also, in 60 g kg−1 SS, the restrictive effects were mitigated by increasing the absorbed dose, but the use of ≥ 5 kGy absorbed dose may not cost-effective. Therefore, in order to improve nutrition and growth of basil plant, application of ≤ 30 g sewage sludge irradiated with 5 kGy absorbed dose of gamma-ray per kilogram soil can be suggested under similar conditions.

Thymus daenensis Celak is an endemic and thymol rich species growing in Iran. Due to the extensive use of thymol in the pharmaceutical, food, feed, as well as in the livestock and poultry industry, T. daenensis has recently been introduced into cultivation. In this study, morphological, phytochemical and ISSR markers were applied to evaluate the genetic diversity and relationships among 59 cultivated T. daenensis clones. Among agro-morphological traits, leaflet width (CV = 78.29) and drug yield (54.85%) had the maximum coefficient of variation. In addition, ranges of essential oil and thymol content varied from 3.26% (TD26) to 7.31% (TD181) and 48.11% (TD44) to 84.39% (TD10), respectively. Cluster analysis of 59 clones based on morphological and phytochemical data represented 3 main groups. ISSR primers reproduced a total of 103 polymorphic bands with an average of 8.58 bands per primer. Marker index varied from 1.64 (IS21) to 3.24 (IS04) with an average of 2.37. The UPGMA dendrogram acquired from the ISSR markers illustrated high variation between the studied clones and placed them into two main groups and different subgroups. Multiple regression analysis (MRA) was applied to estimate the relationships between morphological/phytochemical traits with ISSR bands. Five markers were diagnosed to be affiliated with thymol while three markers showed association with oil content. Also, several ISSR fragments showed association with some morphological traits. Outstanding diversity in terms of genetic, agro-morphological and phytochemical characteristics, gives to breeder the capability of selection and cultivation of the clones according to the purpose of breeding.

Environmental factors shape the production and accumulation processes of plant secondary metabolites in medical and aromatic plants and thus their pharmacological and biological activity. Using an environmental metabolomics approach, we determined chemotypes and specific compounds on the basis of essential oils (EOs) from roots of 10 Iranian

This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of C60 fullerene concentrations (0, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/L) and salicylic acid (0 and 0.2 mM) on growth and phytochemical accumulation of two feverfew genotypes (Pharmasaat and Jelitto) in a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications. According to the ANOVA, triple interaction of treatments were significant on morphological and phytochmical traits, however, the main effect of treatments only affected physiological attributes. Application of salicylic acid differentially influenced the effects of various concentrations of C60 fullerene on growth traits of both genotypes. In Pharmasaat, foliar application of salicylic acid increased growth traits of plants exposed to C60 fullerene at all concentrations, however, it improved the growth of Jelitto at higher levels of fullerene. The maximum increase of flower + leaf dry weight was recorded at 1000 mg/L C60 fullerene in combination with salicylic acid compared to control for Jelitto. In Pharmasaat, the parthenolide content significantly increased following increase of C60 fullerene up to 250 mg/L with salicylic acid, but a rapid decrease followed at 500–1000 mg/L. SEM images showed a wider deposition (many spheres with different sizes) of C60 fullerene on leaf tissue of Pharmasaat exposed to high concentration, involving changes in trichome density and tissue rupture. The essential oil content was not significantly increased upon experimental treatments compared to control. Based on hierarchical cluster analysis, C60 fullerene and salicylic acid treatments caused to a co-induction of ion leakage, chlorophyll a, essential oil and parthenoloide in Pharmasaat.

Heavy metal pollution has become one of the most serious environmental problems. The aim of this study was to achieve an efficient treatment process of effluents containing 1 mM copper (Cu2+) and cadmium (Cd2+) ions using a combination of gamma irradiation, methanol and TiO2 nanoparticles under different pH values. The results showed that in acidic conditions, removal of Cu2+ and Cd2+ ions by physical adsorption was less than 15% and adsorption of Cd2+ was more than that of Cu2+. In the same condition, the Cu2+ removal percentage by irradiation was greater than that of Cd2+. In basic solutions, due to precipitation of Cd and Cu hydroxides, it was not possible to carry out adsorption experiments on Cd2+ and Cu2+ ions removal by TiO2 and gamma irradiation. Cu2+ and Cd2+ ions removal processes under different conditions could be depicted by the first order kinetics model. The combined application of TiO2 and methanol enhanced Cu2+ and Cd2+ ions removal at all pH levels examined. However, using the combination of TiO2 and methanol at acidic solutions facilitated completely removal of Cu2+ and Cd2+ ions. So that, only using 50 kGy irradiation dose with combination of TiO2 nanoparticles and methanol led to the removal of 99% of coexisting Cu2+ and Cd2+ ions from the acidic wastewater.

Graphene-based nanomaterials have shown a great potential towards improving plant performance in various contexts. However, their increased application over the last few years has raised concerns about their potential biological and environmental risks, warranting optimization and safety assessment considerations. The current study was performed to explore the potential impacts of nano-garphene oxide (NGO) at various concentrations (100–800 µg mL−1) on morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of Plantago major L. calli cultures under normal and polyethylene glycol-induced drought stress conditions. Leaf-derived calli on the ½ MS-treated medium with polyethylene glycol showed a decrease in relative growth rate (78.5%), osmotic potential value (48.2%) and an increase in dry matter (35.1%) and H2O2 (54.2%) contents at the highest employed NGO concentration compared with control (p

Melissa officinalis L. is an aromatic and perennial bushy plant with interesting pharmacological and biological properties, which extensively distributed in the Mediterranean region and Asia. In order to domestication and breeding of this plant, an assessment of phytochemical and morphological diversity among 65 individuals of 7 wild and 6 agro-ecotypic populations at full flowering stage, collected from 5 northern provinces of Iran, was carried out on the basis of morphological and phytochemical traits. The average of essential oil content was 0.13% to 0.35% (w/w). The characterization of the essential oils by gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses revealed that all 65 sampled individuals were divided into the 3 chemotypes; chemotype I (geraniol and limonene-10-ol), chemotype II (geranyl linalool and thymol), and chmotype III(caryophyllene oxide and bergamotolacetet), which are comprising 10, 1, and 2 accessions, respectively. The major constituents in all 13 accessions essential oil were limonene-10-ol, geraniol, and caryophyllene oxide. The number of lateral branches, the length of petiole, and the length of lateral stem (CVs of 34.07, 26.28, and 22.82%, respectively) were the main morphological features with high variability among the other studied populations. The high chemical differentiation among and within populations based on their geographical and bioclimatic distribution enforces a breeding approach to gain homogenous cultivars suitable for the agriculture and industry.

Thymus caramanicus Jalas. (Lamiaceae) is an endemic herb growing wild in Iran. Essential oils from the aerial parts of T. caramanicus , at full flowering stage of seven locations in three provinces in Iran were obtained by hydrodistillation. The essential oils yield was 0.41–2.9% (w/w). About 97.9–99.9% of the total constituents were detected by gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy analyses, of which oxygenated monoterpenes (87.5–97.5%) were the main group of the constituents in all populations. The main components of the essential oils were carvacrol (19.8–96.2%), thymol (0.6–61.8%), and p-cymene (0.2–8.2%). Therefore, the phenolic compounds, including carvacrol and thymol, were the most abundant constituents in the oils of all populations, which seem to play a significant role in the adaptation of this species to its environment that is characterized by dry hot climate and calcareous, stony soils.

Artemisia dracunculus L. (tarragon), a common spice and vegetable grown throughout Iran, is an economically important species of the Asteraceae family. The free radical-scavenging activities of 12 Iranian A. dracunculus accession extracts were evaluated using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were measured using spectrophotometric techniques. Reversed-phase highperformance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) with UV detection was also used to identify the major phenolic compounds, revealing the presence of chlorogenic, syringic, and caffeic acids, while the predominant flavonoid was quercetin. Herniarin was the main coumarin in the extracts. Although a high antioxidant capacity was observed in all extracts, their antioxidant activities varied significantly, with the Birjand and Varamin accessions having the highest and the lowest capacities, respectively. The obtained total phenolic and flavonoid values similarly varied among tarragon accessions. Positive linear correlations were found between total antioxidant capacities (DPPH and FRAP assays) and total phenolic as well as flavonoid contents, indicating that phenolic compounds were the dominant antioxidant constituents in the tested plant extracts. Tarragon could therefore be a good source of natural antioxidants and has potential as a valuable dietary supplement.

Satureja species are commercially and medicinally important due to their high variability of essential oil components. In this study the essential oil compositions of eleven individual plants of Satureja macrosiphonia Bornm (Labiatae) from Ilam province (Iran) were characterized. The oils were isolated from flowering aerial parts of the plants by hydro-distillation method and then subjected to GC and GC-MS analyses to determine the constituents. Forty-two compounds were identified in the essential oils. The oil of S. macrosiphonia was rich in oxygenated monoterpens (ranging from 31.1 to 77.1%) and monoterpene hydrocarbons (from 14.5 to 60.7%). Limonene (0.2-20.1%), β-phellandrene (0.2-22.9%), γ-terpinene (1.0-21.1%), trans-sabinene hydrate (1.2-15.0%), cis-linalool oxide (0.4-30.5%), linalool (0.1-15.5%), cis- sabinene hydrate (0.2-24.5%), p-menth-2-en-1-ol (0.9-28.0%), borneol (0.2-8.2%), 4-terpineol (0.2-24.0%) and crvacrol (0.2-5.7%) were the major essential oil constituents. Variation of essen...

Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad has been used in pharmaceutical industry because of its interesting pharmacological and biological activities. This study was undertaken to evaluate the level of genetic diversity and differentiation of S. khuzistanica populations. For this purpose, 84 individual plants from seven populations of this species were studied using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. A total of 157 bands were generated by 13 ISSR primers, of which 120 (88.35%) bands were polymorphic. Nei’s gene diversity and Shannon information index varied between 0.24 and 0.28 and 0.35 and 0.42, respectively. Analyses of molecular variance detected 90% of variation within populations. Structure analysis showed the highest ∆K at K = 4, representing the individuals into four groups. In contrast to limited distribution and wild collection, the present study showed high level of genetic diversity in natural populations.

Biosynthesis and metabolism of phytochemicals in aromatic and medicinal plants are vigorously affected by environmental agents. This study was undertaken to investigate the variations in the growth, nutrient status and the essential oils content and composition of pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium L.) plant exposed to different concentrations of copper (Cu; 0, 5, 25 mg kg−1 soil) and zinc (Zn; 0, 10, 50 mg kg−1 soil). The results of the plant treatment responses revealed that the highest plant height, shoot dry weight, essential oil content and yield were achieved in plants treated with Cu and Zn at 5 and 10 mg kg−1. Low Zn concentration showed a synergistic effect on the uptake of Cu, Fe, Mn and K, whereas it revealed **contrary effect on phosphorus (P) status. However, Cu in 5 mg kg−1 poses positive effect on Fe, Mn and P content in root and shoot tissues. Moreover, the addition of Cu and Zn especially at 5 and 10 mg kg−1 was the optimal level in increasing the status of K, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn in shoot, infusion and decoction. The constituents and quality of M. pulegium essential oils in terms of its major volatile components, namely pulegone, cis-isopulegone, α-pinene, sabinene, 1,8-cineol and thymol, improved significantly with Cu and Zn treatment as compared to control. From this standpoint, M. pulegium can be grown as alternative crop for mildly Cu- and Zn-polluted agricultural soils without contamination of the its industrial products.

The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in the chemical profile of essential oils and antioxidant enzymes activity (catalase CAT, superoxide dismutase SOD, Glutathione S-transferases GST, and Peroxidase POX) in Mentha &times, piperita L. (Mitcham variety) and Mentha arvensis L. (var. piperascens), in response to heat stress. In addition, we used salicylic acid (SA) and melatonin (M), two brassinosteroids that play an important role in regulating physiological processes, to assess their potential to mitigate heat stress. In both species, the heat stress caused a variation in the composition of the essential oils and in the antioxidant enzymatic activity. Furthermore both Salicylic acid (SA) and melatonin (M) alleviated the effect of heat stress.

Plant density is an important factor in determining the microenvironment in the agricultural and plant production systems. This study examined the effects of different planting densities (25×60 cm, 25×70 cm, 25×80 cm, 35×60 cm, 35×70 cm, 35×80 cm, 45×60 cm, 45×70 cm, and 45×80 cm) on agromorphological parameters and essential oil production of Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad, in 2 growing years. The essential oils were isolated from aerial flowering parts of the plants by hydrodistillation method and subjected to GC and GC-MS analyses to determine the constituents. The mean total two years of growth results indicated that the plant dry weight increased with decreasing density. The highest and the lowest leaf + inflorescence yield per unit area were obtained in the highest and the lowest planting density, respectively. Also, results showed that the 18 compositions were identified in essential oil of S. khuzestanica plants under all employed treatments. In general, essential oil percentage was increase...

Three harvest stages including one-stage (one time after 36 days), two-stage (two times, every 18 days) and three-stage were considered in order to evaluate the effect of gradual harvest of oleoresin on essential oil quantity and quality of male and female Pistacia atlantica Subsp. Kurdica. The results demonstrated that essential oil percentage was not affected by genders and treatments. Limonene in male gender and o-Cymene in female gender were more in comparison with each other. Moreover, α-pinene in harvesting of two-stage was lower than other times. Furthermore, 4,8-epoxy-para-mentyh-1-ene in male gender as well as β-cyclocitral in female gender only found in the harvesting of one-stage, while other compounds found in the essential oil were not affected by different stages of gradual harvest.

Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) as a strategic and highly valuable medicinal plant in Iran with numerous beneficial pharmaceutical properties contributes substantially to Iranian herbs exports. In the present study, variation of cultivated licorice populations was assessed via morphological, phytochemical and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) markers. A remarkable variation among cultivated populations of G. glabra in terms of morphological and phytochemical characteristics was found. Maximum coefficient of variance was observed in leaf attributes such as leaf width (CV = 34.6 %) and leaf length (CV = 32.7 %) among different populations. Minimum (11.7 mg/g Dry Weight (DW)) and maximum (74.0 mg/g DW) amount of glycyrrhizic acid were observed in Haji Abad and Eghlid populations, respectively. High levels of glabridin content were allocated to Kashmar (4.0 mg/g DW), Ahar (3.0 mg/g DW) and Ilam (2.9 mg/g DW) populations. Nine EST-SSR primers were applied to analyze the genetic variation of 162 individuals of 28 licorice populations. In total 46 bands were obtained from 9 SSR markers with 24 bands being polymorphic (52.2 %). The polymorphic information content (PIC) for markers ranged from 0.32 (SSR-25053) to 0.61 (SSR-20631), with an average of 0.50. The analysis of the molecular variance (AMOVA) of the licorice populations demonstrated that 82.0 % of variability was related to the intra-population level, while the diversity among populations amounted to 18.0 %. Ultimately, the results of this investigation create guidelines such as the identification of glycyrrhizic acid/glabridin rich-clones and genetically separated clones for deliberate interbreeding and further examinations as a subset of breeding programs.

This study aimed to determine the response of Satureja rechingeri to water deficit by quantifying the expression of three targeted genes and four traditional reference genes using quantitative real-time PCR analysis (RT-qPCR). Drought stress was imposed by withholding water 4 months after planting. Profiling of volatile and non-volatile compounds using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) showed an increasing–decreasing trend of major phenolic and terpenoid compounds such as rosmarinic and caffeic acids, carvacrole, thymol and p-Cymene. Drought stress also lead to significant increases in oil yield, soluble sugars and proline as well as significant reductions in leaf water potential (LWP), relative water content (RWC), and pigments. Metabolite profiling revealed the strategies savory employed to generate different biochemical phenotypes. RT-qPCR analysis showed that up-regulation of the three genes [1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme. A reductase (HMGR) and rosmarinic acid synthase: 4-coumaroyl-CoA (RAS)] selected from the phenylpropanoid and terpenoid biosynthesis pathways were markedly enhanced at the transcript levels of the regulatory steps and directly increased the production of secondary metabolites, including phenolic and terpenoid compounds. Actin protein (ACT), elongation factor 1-α (EF1α), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase cytosolic (GAPC) and ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (UBC) were used as traditional reference genes. UBC’s suitability as the reference genes were verified in S. rechingeri. The study’s results provide the foundation for gene expression analysis of savory and other species of Lamiaceae. Thus, the effective application of drought stress before harvesting can increase the quantity and quality of raw material. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13205-018-1491-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Gamma irradiation is regarded as a promising alternative method for sewage sludge (SS) treatment. To evaluate the human health risk and effects of gamma irradiated and non-irradiated SS (SSGI and SSNI, respectively) on micronutrient and heavy metal concentrations in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) as a test plant, a greenhouse experiment based on completely randomized design was conducted with control (without SS and irradiation) and 15, 30 and 60 g kg−1 of SSNI as well as SSGI (irradiated with doses of 5, 10 and 20 kGy) with three replicates. The results indicated that the concentrations of copper, zinc, iron, nickel, lead, and cadmium in SSGI and SSNI treatments were greater than the limits set by FAO/WHO for vegetables or by European Commission for food. The target hazard quotient (THQ) of all metals except lead in the treatments with >15 g kg−1 SSGI or SSNI and the hazard index (HI) in the control treatment were lower than the threshold value of 1, but the HIs in SSNI and SSGI treatments were greater than the threshold value. Nevertheless, no significant differences existed between most THQs and HIs from dietary intake of basil grown in SSGI as compared with SSNI. It was concluded that the basil cultivated under tested levels of SSGI and SSNI is not permissible for human consumption.

Heat stress affects the yield of medicinal plants and can reduce biomass and/or metabolite production. In order to evaluate the effect of heat-induced stress on the essential oil production in Mentha x piperita L. var. Mitcham (Mitcham mint) and Mentha arvensis var. piperascens Malinv. ex L. H. Bailey (Japanese mint), we studied the chemical composition of the oils of the two mint species under different heat shock stresses in growth chambers. The antibacterial activity of the essential oils was also evaluated, microscopic observation (fluorescence and electron transmission) was used to assess the effect of the tested samples on bacterial growth. The results obtained shed light on the mint essential oils composition and biological activity in relation to heat stress.

Heat stress affects the yield of medicinal plants and can reduce biomass and/or metabolite production. In order to evaluate the effect of heat-induced stress on the essential oil production in Mentha x piperita L. var. Mitcham (Mitcham mint) and Mentha x arvensis var. piperascens Malinv. ex L. H. Bailey (Japanese mint), we studied the chemical composition of the oils of the two mint species under different heat shock stress in growth chambers. The antibacterial activity of the essential oils was also evaluated; microscopic observation (fluorescence and electron transmission) was used to assess the effect of the tested samples on bacterial growth. The results obtained shed light on the mint essential oils composition and biological activity in relation to heat stress.

Due to an increasing risk of chemical contamination upon the application of synthetic fungicides to preserve fresh fruits and vegetables, essential oils are gaining increasing attentions. In this research, besides chemical analysis of the essential oils of three Satureja species (S. hortensis, S. spicigera, and S. khuzistanica) by GC–MS, their fungicidal and/or fungistatic effects on postharvest pathogens of strawberry were investigated. Essential oils were extracted by means of hydro-distillation and afterwards GC/MS analysis was performed to identify their components. Carvacrol, γ-terpinene and p-cymene were detected as the repeating main constituents of the spices, while thymol and carvacrol methyl ether were found as major components only in S. ‎spicigera oil. In vitro results showed that at the maximum concentration, the essential oils did not possess fungicidal effects on Aspergillus niger but they exhibited fungicidal activities against Penicillium digitatum, Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer. However, S. khuzistanica was the strongest oil in fungicidal activity. S. hortensis oil was more effective than S. spicigera against B. cinerea whereas S. spicigera oil showed stronger fungicidal activity against R. stolonifer. In conclusion, essential oils isolated from three savory species could be suitable for applications in the food industry to control molds and improve the safety of fruits and vegetables.

The present study was carried out to explore the potential effects of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on callus induction and secondary metabolism in Satureja khuzestanica . Leaf segments were aseptically cultured in B5 basal medium with different MWCNTs concentrations (0, 25, 50, 100, 250 and 500 μg ml −1 ). The calli morphogenic responses were measured and the contents of phenolics, flavonoids, rosmarinic acid (RA), caffeic acid (CA), and the activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), l -phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and peroxidase (POD) were quantified. Moreover, antioxidant activities of calli extract were assayed. Calli growth improved significantly with the increase of MWCNTs concentration, peaked at 50 μg ml −1 , and then followed a rapid decrease at 500 μg ml −1 . However, metabolic effects observed following exposure to MWCNTs particularly at 100 μg ml −1 tended to be more pronounced than all other treatments, exhibiting significant induction of antioxidant activity with the lowest IC 50 value. Maximum oxidative stress index (H 2 O 2 ) and the highest PPO and POD activities were observed on the media treated with 500 μg ml −1 MWCNTs. Our findings suggest for the first time that use of MWCNTs at specific levels could act as a novel elicitor for in vitro biosynthesis of valuable secondary metabolites and antioxidant drugs.

Satureja mutica Fisch is a highly aromatic species with interesting biological and pharmacological characteristics. This investigation was performed to evaluate the levels of inter- and intra-population variabilities of essential oil constituents and some agro-morphological characteristics of S. mutica in Iran. The essential oils of the aerial parts of plant have been analyzed by GC and GC/MS. High level of variability was found among the 58 individual plants of the seven studied populations. Coefficient of variation was the highest for essential oil content (CV = 52 %) among the populations. The essential oil content varied between 0.5 and 4.2 % (w/w). Thymol (6.5–74.6 %), carvacrol (0.9–70.4 %), borneol (0.1–10.9 %), p-cymene (0.30–14.2 %), and γ-terpinene (0.1–9.9 %) were identified as the major predominant constituents of essential oils for the studied individual plants. The clustering of individual plants based on the major oil components comprised three main groups, representing carvacrol/thymol/p-cymene, thymol/p-cymene/carvacrol, and carvacrol/borneol chemotypes. Among the studied agro-morphological traits, the highest levels of variability were observed for drug yield (CV = 99 %) and inflorescence length (CV = 55 %). Based on the higher essential oil content (4.2 %), drug yield (10.4 g plant−1), and plant height (45.9 cm), plant population from Keshanak region, because of its original habitat, is suggested as the most promising population for pharmaceutical purposes and mass production of essential oils. Thus, the variability recognized here might be considered for characterizing the large gene pool for breeding program.

The hydro-distilled essential oils obtained from the different organs (roots, leaves, stalks, inflorescences and fruits) of Kelussia odoratissima, an endemic medicinal plant of Iran, were analyzed by gas chromatography–flame ionization detector (GC–FID) and GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) to determine their chemical composition. The essential oil content (w/w%) was in the order of: fruit (1.4%) > root (1.05%) > stalk (0.37%) > leaf (0.27%) > inflorescence (0.2%). The total number of compounds identified and quantified were thirty-two in roots, thirty-one in stalks, twenty-one in leaves, twenty-one in inflorescences and six in fruits, representing 99.5%, 99.2%, 98.2%, 98.1% and 99.7% of the total oil, respectively. The phthalide (Z)-ligustilide (54.0–86.0%) and (2E)-decen-1-ol (2.0–12.3%) were the major compounds in all plant organs. These results suggest that the five studied organs of K. odoratissima are potentially good sources of phthalides, which are known for their anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor and inse...

The effect of five drying methods on the essential oil content and composition of Rosa foetida Herrm. was studied for incorporation into a post-harvesting program for medicinal and perfumery industries. The drying methods tested were sun drying (SD), closed shade drying (CSD), oven drying at 40°C (OD40) and 60°C (OD60) and microwave drying (MD). The essential oils from fresh and dried samples were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by a gas chromatography–flame ionization detector (GC–FID) and GC–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The drying method had a significant effect on the essential oil content (w/w%) in the order of: CSD (0.28%) > SD (0.20%) > OD40 (0.18%) > OD60 (0.14%) > MD (0.05%). In total, twenty-three, thirteen, eight, twelve, ten and twelve constituents were identified and quantified in fresh, CSD, SD, OD40, OD60 and MD samples, representing 93.4%, 97.5%, 97.3%, 97.4%, 98.0% and 96.7% of the total oil, respectively. The major components of all samples were n-nonadecane (25.8–56.4%), n-henei...