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The purpose of the study described in this paper was investigated students' expectations with respect to physical distance between people, objects and animals in different situations. Data were gathered from 263 students (131 females, 132 males) from the Humanistic Institute in Walbrzych Higher Vocational College (PWSZ) and from the Faculty of Physical Education in Pawel Wlodkowic University College in Plock Higher School (SWPW). Students were conducted their studies as a part of bachelors degree. In this study we used 22- items Polish version of the IPROX questionnaires developed by Hogh-Olesen (2008), in which subjects in simulated situations were instructed to place humans, objects, and animals' in relation to other representatives of their category. Results indicate that IPROX questionnaire were very useful in assessing of the physical distance declared by students. With regard to student sex disclosed statistically significant differences the declared distances only in four situations. In every of them the male students declared significantly longer distance, than female students. A comparative analysis of average distances declared by the subjects from Greenland, Denmark, Italy, Cameroon and India [Hogh-Olesen, 2008] as well as Polish students showed existence cross-cultural differences.

The paper addresses the issue of modelling the demand for electricity at the level of residential buildings with the use of artificial intelligence tools, namely artificial neural networks (ANN). The real data for six buildings acquired by measurement meters installed in them was used in the research. Their original frequency of 1 Hz has been resampled to a frequency of 1/600 Hz which corresponds to a period of 10 minutes. Out-of-sample forecasts verified the ability of ANN to disaggregate electricity usage for its specific applications. Four categories were distinguished, which were electricity consumption by: (i) fridge, (ii) washing machine, (iii) personal computer and (iv) freezer. Both standard ANNs with multilayer perceptron architecture and newer types of networks based on deep learning approach were used. The simulations included a total of over 10,000 ANNs differing, e.g. architecture, input variables, activation functions, their parameters, and training algorithms. The research confirmed the possibility of using ANN in modelling the disaggregation of electricity consumption and indicated the way of building a highly optimized model.

Electricity is the basis for the functioning of modern society. It is used for many purposes, including HVAC systems. Information on future electricity demand is an important element from the point of view of both the real estate user and other entities on the energy market. The study forecasts the demand for electricity on the basis of data from over 12,000 buildings. The model was created using one of the tools from the area of artificial intelligence - neural networks. Over 15,000 networks differing in architecture, number of nerve cells, activation functions, sets of explanatory variables and learning algorithms have been tested. The paper presents those from the tested models, which were characterized by the highest precision of operation.

Background: The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a unique joint that enables mandibular movement. Temporomandibular diseases (TMDs) impair joint function, leading to more or less specific clinical signs., Objectives: To compile and disseminate clinical data and research findings from existing publications on equine TMD., Study Design: Systematic review., Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, literature searches were conducted in PUBMED, Scopus, and Web of Knowledge. The inclusion criteria covered case reports and research articles on equine TMDs. The selected records were grouped considering septic TMJ arthritis, primary TMJ osteoarthritis (OA), and non-arthritic TMDs. A risk of bias assessment was performed for the research articles., Results: Equine TMD has been described in 51 publications to date, with septic TMJ arthritis accounting for 41.2% of TMD cases, fractures/luxations for 29.4%, and primary TMJ OA for 21.6%. Trauma was confirmed or suspected in 54.9% of TMD cases. The severity of clinical signs was mild to moderate in primary TMJ OA and mild to severe in septic TMJ arthritis and non-arthritic TMDs. Clinical signs were related to the underlying cause, particularly in terms of TMJ swelling, pain, and masticatory problems. Among diagnostic imaging modalities, CT was utilised in 92.2% of horses, radiography in 84.4%, and ultrasonography in 21.6%., Main Limitations: The lack of clinical data in some reports. A risk of bias due to missing data., Conclusions: TMDs are infrequently described, with trauma being the most common TMD cause. TMDs are associated with TMJ dysfunction; however, the diagnostic protocol is varied. Regardless of the TMD type, a detailed diagnostic protocol should include a thorough history, detailed TMJ examination, and radiography as the first imaging choice in field practice, with CT as the 'gold standard' in clinical settings. For septic TMJ arthritis, a bacterial culture is recommended, while for primary TMJ OA, functional tests and local analgesia., (© 2025 The Author(s). Equine Veterinary Journal published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of EVJ Ltd.)

In equine medicine, assisted bone regeneration, including use of biomaterial substitutes like hydroxyapatite (HAP), is crucial for addressing bone defects. To follow-up on the outcome of HAP-based bone defect treatment, the advancement in quantified diagnostic imaging protocols is needed. This study aimed to quantify and compare the radiological properties of the HAP graft and natural equine bone using Magnetic Resonance (MR) and Computed Tomography (CT), both Single (SECT) and Dual Energy (DECT). SECT and DECT, allow for the differentiation of three HAP grain sizes, by progressive increase in relative density (RD). SECT, DECT, and MR enable the differentiation between natural cortical bone and synthetic HAP graft by augmentation in Effective Z and material density (MD) in HAP/Water, Calcium/Water, and Water/Calcium reconstructions, alongside the reduction in T2 relaxation time. The proposed quantification provided valuable radiological insights into the composition of HAP grafts, which may be useful in follow-up bone defect treatment., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest All authors declare no competing interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Osteoarthritis (OA), including knee joint OA, is a common chronic condition in cats. In both cats and humans, knee joint OA is characterized radiographically by the presence of osteophytes, enthesiophytes, subchondral sclerosis, and joint space narrowing. However, only in humans have these radiographic signs been reported to increase bone mineral density (BMD). Therefore, this study aims to quantify the volumetric (vBMD) and relative (rBMD) BMD measures of the feline knee joint and compare BMD measures between various severities of OA to test the hypothesized OA-BMD relationship in the knee joint in cats. The 46 feline knee joints were imaged using computed tomography (CT) and conventional radiography supported by the computed digital absorptiometry (CDA) method to obtain vBMD and rBMD, respectively. Both BMD measures were assessed in three regions of interest (ROIs): the distal femur (ROI 1), patella (ROI 2), and proximal tibia (ROI 3). In all locations, vBMD and rBMD showed moderate (ROI 2: r = 0.67, p < 0.0001) to strong (ROI 1: ρ = 0.96, p < 0.0001; ROI 3: r = 0.89, p < 0.0001) positive correlations. Due to differences ( p < 0.0001) in the width of the distal femur (17.9 ± 1.21 mm), patella (8.2 ± 0.82 mm), and proximal tibia (19.3 ± 1.16 mm), the rBMD was corrected (corr rBMD) using the thickness coefficient of 0.46 ± 0.04 for ROI 2 and 1.08 ± 0.03 for ROI 3. Regardless of the quantification method used, BMD measures increased linearly from a normal knee joint to severe OA, with differences in BMD between normal and mild to severe knee joint OA. The OA-BMD relationship in the feline knee joint can be preliminarily confirmed.

Bone mineral density (BMD) varies with aging and both systemic and local diseases; however, such evidence is lacking in feline medicine. This may be due to the need for general anesthesia in cats for direct BMD measurements using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) or quantitative computed tomography (QCT). In this study, computed digital absorptiometry (CDA), an indirect relative BMD-measuring method, was optimized to select an X-ray tube setting for the quantitative assessment of the feline knee joint. The knee joints of nine cats were radiographically imaged and processed using the CDA method with an aluminum density standard and five X-ray tube settings (from 50 to 80 kV; between 1.2 and 12 mAs). The reference attenuation of the X-ray beam for ten steps (S1-S10) of the density standard was recorded in Hounsfield units (HU), compared between X-ray tube settings, and used to determine the ranges of relative density applied for radiograph decomposition. The relative density decreased ( p < 0.0001) with an increase in kV and dispersed with an increase in mAs. Then, the percentage of color pixels (%color pixels), representing ranges of relative density, was compared among S1-S10 and used for the recognition of background artifacts. The %color pixels was the highest for low steps and the lowest for high steps ( p < 0.0001), regardless of X-ray tube settings. The X-ray tube setting was considered the most beneficial when it effectively covered the lowest possible HU ranges without inducing background artifacts. In conclusion, for further clinical application of the CDA method for quantitative research on knee joint OA in cats, 60 kV and 1.2 mAs settings are recommended.

The paranasal sinuses, a bilaterally symmetrical system of eight air-filled cavities, represent one of the most complex parts of the equine body. This study aimed to extract morphometric measures from computed tomography (CT) images of the equine head and to implement a clustering analysis for the computer-aided identification of age-related variations. Heads of 18 cadaver horses, aged 2-25 years, were CT-imaged and segmented to extract their volume, surface area, and relative density from the frontal sinus (FS), dorsal conchal sinus (DCS), ventral conchal sinus (VCS), rostral maxillary sinus (RMS), caudal maxillary sinus (CMS), sphenoid sinus (SS), palatine sinus (PS), and middle conchal sinus (MCS). Data were grouped into young, middle-aged, and old horse groups and clustered using the K-means clustering algorithm. Morphometric measurements varied according to the sinus position and age of the horses but not the body side. The volume and surface area of the VCS, RMS, and CMS increased with the age of the horses. With accuracy values of 0.72 for RMS, 0.67 for CMS, and 0.31 for VCS, the possibility of the age-related clustering of CT-based 3D images of equine paranasal sinuses was confirmed for RMS and CMS but disproved for VCS.

Osteoarthritis (OA) of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) occurs spontaneously in humans and various animal species, including horses. In humans, obtaining tissue samples is challenging and clinical symptoms appear late in the disease progression. Therefore, genetically modified, induced, and naturally occurring animal models play a crucial role in understanding the pathogenesis and evaluating potential therapeutic interventions for TMJ OA. Among the naturally occurring models, the equine TMJ OA model is characterized by slow, age-related progression, a wide range of clinical examinations, and imaging modalities that can be performed on horses, as well as easy tissue and synovial fluid collection. The morphological and functional similarities of TMJ structures in both species make the equine model of TMJ OA an excellent opportunity to track disease progression and response to treatment. However, much work remains to be carried out to determine the utility of human TMJ OA biomarkers in horses. Among the main TMJ OA biomarkers, IL-1, IL-6, TGF-β, TNF-α, and PGE 2 have been recently investigated in the equine model. However, the majority of biomarkers for cartilage degradation, chondrocyte hypertrophy, angiogenesis, and TMJ overload-as well as any of the main signaling pathways-have not been studied so far. Therefore, it would be advisable to focus further research on equine specimens, considering both mediators and signaling.

Uterine diseases stand as the primary cause of infertility in mares; however, the diagnostic process often relies on obtaining endometrial biopsies and their hematoxylin-eosin staining. This review seeks to present the variability of uterine changes and their impact on fertility and underscore the utility of special stains, such as Masson trichrome, picrosirius red, elastica van Gieson, or periodic acid-Schiff, in enhancing diagnostic breadth. Connective tissue evaluation in the cervix is discussed, as it is subjected to cyclic changes and the impact on overall fertility. Vascular changes, particularly prevalent in multiparous mares, play a crucial role in adapting to physiological and pathological alterations, affecting early gestation and impeding placental development. Given that uterine vascular pathologies often involve fibrotic changes, connective tissue stains emerge as a valuable tool in this context. Moreover, equine endometriosis, predominantly associated with endometrial fibrosis, further highlights the relevance of special stains, suggesting their underutilization in the diagnostic process. Recognizing the subjective nature of diagnosing uterine pathologies and the need for additional diagnostic tools, we advocate for using dedicated stains in the histopathological evaluation of uterine samples. In conclusion, we encourage scientists and diagnosticians to embrace additional tools that enhance pathology visualization, enabling more reliable diagnoses concerning expected fertility.

Incorporating lunging into a horse's daily routine aims to enhance fitness, physical condition, and specific skills or exercises when using lunging aids (LAs). To assess the effectiveness of lunging, non-contact technologies like geometric morphometrics and infrared thermography can be employed. This study seeks to evaluate lunging efficiency based on the horse's posture and surface temperature when lunging with different head and neck positions. The study aims to determine if changes in a horse's posture correspond to increased metabolic activity, as indicated by body surface temperature. Thirteen horses included in the study were lunged with chambon (CH), rubber band (RB), and triangle side reins (TRs) as well as with a freely moving head (FMH). Images were taken in visible light and infrared. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to analyze horse posture changes and a Pixel-Counting Protocol (PCP) was used to quantify surface temperature patterns. The horses' posture exhibited contrasting changes, reflected by a changing centroid shape ( p < 0.0001) but not size ( p > 0.05) when lunged with RB and TRs, but not CH. Different ( p < 0.0001) surface temperature patterns were observed during lunging. FMH lunging resulted in lower temperatures over a larger surface, CH induced moderate temperatures on a smaller area, RB caused moderate to high temperatures across a broader surface, and TRs led to higher temperatures over a smaller region. The studied lunging cases returned different ( p < 0.0001) surface temperature patterns. Lunging with FMH returned lower temperatures over a larger surface, CH moderate temperatures on a smaller area, RB moderate to high temperatures across a broader surface, and TRs higher temperatures over a smaller region. The proposed methods can be applied to evaluate the efficiency of lunging in horses.

Dental diagnostic imaging has progressed towards the use of advanced technologies such as 3D image processing. Since multidetector computed tomography (CT) is widely available in equine clinics, CT-based anatomical 3D models, segmentations, and measurements have become clinically applicable. This study aimed to use a 3D segmentation of CT images and volumetric measurements to investigate differences in the surface area and volume of equine incisors. The 3D Slicer was used to segment single incisors of 50 horses' heads and to extract volumetric features. Axial vertical symmetry, but not horizontal, of the incisors was evidenced. The surface area and volume differed significantly between temporary and permanent incisors, allowing for easy eruption-related clustering of the CT-based 3D images with an accuracy of >0.75. The volumetric features differed partially between center, intermediate, and corner incisors, allowing for moderate location-related clustering with an accuracy of >0.69. The volumetric features of mandibular incisors' equine odontoclastic tooth resorption and hypercementosis (EOTRH) degrees were more than those for maxillary incisors; thus, the accuracy of EOTRH degree-related clustering was >0.72 for the mandibula and >0.33 for the maxilla. The CT-based 3D images of equine incisors can be successfully segmented using the routinely achieved multidetector CT data sets and the proposed data-processing approaches.

Dexmedetomidine, a central α-2 agonist, is used for procedural sedation and for conscious sedation influences on heart rate and blood pressure. Authors verified whether it is possible to predict bradycardia and hypotension with the use of heart rate variability (HRV) analysis for an autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity assessment. The study included adult patients of both sexes with an ASA score of I or II scheduled for ophthalmic surgery to be performed under sedation. The loading dose of dexmedetomidine was followed by a 15 min infusion of the maintenance dose. The frequency domain heart rate variability parameters from the 5-min Holter electrocardiogram recordings before dexmedetomidine administration were used for the analysis. The statistical analysis also included pre-drug heart rate and blood pressure as well as patient age and sex. The data from 62 patients were analysed. There was no relationship between the decrease in heart rate (42% of cases) and initial HRV parameters, haemodynamic parameters or sex and age of patients. In multivariate analysis, the only risk factor for a decrease in mean arterial pressure (MAP) > 15% from the pre-drug value (39% of cases) was the systolic blood pressure before dexmedetomidine administration as well as for a >15% decrease in MAP sustained at more than one consecutive time point (27% of cases). The initial condition of the ANS did not correlate with the incidence of bradycardia or hypotension; HRV analysis was not helpful in predicting the abovementioned side effects of dexmedetomidine.

The expression of genes of various proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines is controlled, among others, by the signaling pathway of the nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) superfamily of proteins, providing an impact on immune system functioning. The present review addresses the influence and role of the NF-κB pathway in the development and progression of most vital endometrial diseases in human and animal species. Immune modulation by NF-κB in endometritis, endometrosis, endometriosis, and carcinoma results in changes in cell migration, proliferation, and inflammation intensity in both the stroma and epithelium. In endometrial cells, the NF-κB signaling pathway may be activated by multiple stimuli, such as bacterial parts, cytokines, or hormones binding to specific receptors. The dysregulation of the immune system in response to NF-κB involves aberrant production of chemokines and cytokines, which plays a role in endometritis, endometriosis, endometrosis, and endometrial carcinoma. However, estrogen and progesterone influence on the reproductive tract always plays a major role in its regulation. Thus, sex hormones cannot be overlooked in endometrial disease physiopathology. While immune system dysregulation seems to be NF-κB-dependent, the hormone-independent and hormone-dependent regulation of NF-κB signaling in the endometrium should be considered in future studies. Future goals in this research should be a step up into clinical trials with compounds affecting NF-κB as treatment for endometrial diseases.

Introduction: Evaluation of the effects of the drugs used for iron supplementation on the peritoneal mesothelial cells., Methods: Acute effects during18-h incubation of iron sucrose, ferric carboxymaltose, and iron isomaltoside in concentrations 1, 5, and 20 ug/dl on properties of the human peritoneal mesothelial cells in in vitro culture were evaluated, and their reversibility after the following culture for 14 days in the iron-free medium was studied., Results: All studied compounds reduced viability of mesothelial cells and proliferation rate and increased intracellular oxidative stress and iron content in the cytosol. Secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 was increased and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) decreased. After 14 days of culture in iron-free medium, reversibility of all these effects was observed., Conclusion: Iron compounds impair the functional properties of mesothelial cells in a dose-dependent manner, but these effects are reversible after the following culture of the cells in an iron-free medium., (© 2022 International Society for Apheresis and Japanese Society for Apheresis.)

Introduction: Ophthalmic surgery is assumed to be safe, but some operations require general anaesthesia which is associated with a number of potential complications. In addition, adverse cardiovascular symptoms, such as severe slowing of the heart rate and, in some cases, cardiac arrest may occur due to the surgical technique. The aim of this study was to determine whether it is possible to predict the occurrence of oculocardiac reflex (OCR) based on heart rate variability (HRV) analysis for autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity assessment measured prior to the induction of anaesthesia and immediately before eyeball traction., Methods: Fifty-two adults of both sexes (age range 18-65 years) with American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status class 1 and 2 were enrolled in this study. All patients had underwent episcleral buckling under general anaesthesia. High-frequency (HF) changes in HRV are thought to reflect parasympathetic impulse transmission, whereas low-frequency (LF) changes reflect both sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. However, in practice, LF changes can be considered to reflect sympathetic changes. Thus, the LF/HF ratio reflects the actual balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Based on that, frequency domain HRV parameters from 5-min Holter electrocardiogram recordings before anaesthesia induction and before eyeball traction were used for the analysis. The statistical analysis also included patient age, sex, ASA status and preanaesthesia and premanoeuvre heart rate and blood pressure., Results: Data from 42 patients were analysed. Oculocardiac reflex was observed in 32 patients (76.2%). No difference was found in the analysed parameters between patients with and without oculocardiac reflex. There was no relationship between the incidence of the OCR and the analysed parameters., Conclusion: The prediction of OCR based on initial ANS tone was not possible, and the initial heart rate, blood pressure, age, sex, and ASA status were not helpful for the identification of patients at risk of this reflex., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier no.: NCT01714362., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

As obesity is a serious problem in the human population, overloading of the horse's thoracolumbar region often affects sport and school horses. The advances in using infrared thermography (IRT) to assess the horse's back overload will shortly integrate the IRT-based rider-horse fit into everyday equine practice. This study aimed to evaluate the applicability of entropy measures to select the most informative measures and color components, and the accuracy of rider:horse bodyweight ratio detection. Twelve horses were ridden by each of the six riders assigned to the light, moderate, and heavy groups. Thermal images were taken pre- and post-exercise. For each thermal image, two-dimensional sample (SampEn), fuzzy (FuzzEn), permutation (PermEn), dispersion (DispEn), and distribution (DistEn) entropies were measured in the withers and the thoracic spine areas. Among 40 returned measures, 30 entropy measures were exercise-dependent, whereas 8 entropy measures were bodyweight ratio-dependent. Moreover, three entropy measures demonstrated similarities to entropy-related gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) texture features, confirming the higher irregularity and complexity of thermal image texture when horses worked under heavy riders. An application of DispEn to red color components enables identification of the light and heavy rider groups with higher accuracy than the previously used entropy-related GLCM texture features.

Endometrosis is a frequently occurring disease decreasing mares' fertility. Thus, it is an important disease of the endometrium associated with epithelial and stromal cell alterations, endometrium gland degeneration and periglandular fibrosis. Multiple degenerative changes are found in uterine mucosa, the endometrium. However, their pathogenesis is not well known. It is thought that nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), a cell metabolism regulator, and its activation pathways take part in it. The transcription of the profibrotic pathway genes of the NF-κB in fibrotic endometria differed between the follicular (FLP) and mid-luteal (MLP) phases of the estrous cycle, as well as with fibrosis progression. This study aimed to investigate the transcription of genes of estrogen ( ESR1 , ESR2 ) and progesterone receptors ( PGR ) in equine endometria to find relationships between the endocrine environment, NF-κB-pathway, and fibrosis. Endometrial samples ( n = 100), collected in FLP or MLP, were classified histologically, and examined using quantitative PCR. The phase of the cycle was determined through the evaluation of ovarian structures and hormone levels (estradiol, progesterone) in serum. The transcription of ESR1 , ESR2 , and PGR decreased with the severity of endometrial fibrosis and degeneration of the endometrium. Moreover, differences in the transcription of ESR1 , ESR2 , and PGR were noted between FLP and MLP in the specific categories and histopathological type of equine endometrosis. In FLP and MLP, specific moderate and strong correlations between ESR1 , ESR2 , PGR and genes of the NF-κB pathway were evidenced. The transcription of endometrial steroid receptors can be subjected to dysregulation with the degree of equine endometrosis, especially in both destructive types of endometrosis, and mediated by the canonical NF-κB pathway depending on the estrous cycle phase.

Endometritis is an important issue decreasing mares' fertility. In the case of endometritis, both inflammatory cells infiltration and proinflammatory molecules production are regulated by various cellular and gene regulatory mechanisms, including the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)-dependent pathway. NF-κB-signalling pathway has been recently studied in the equine endometrium in the context of endometrosis. Thus, this study aimed to determine gene transcription of NF-κB subunits (RelA; NF-κB1; NF-κB2), proinflammatory molecules (MCP-1; IL-6) and hyaluronan synthases (HAS 1; HAS 2; HAS 3) in endometritis and compare them with the intensity and type of inflammatory cell infiltration. Endometrial samples, collected post-mortem from cyclic mares in oestrus or dioestrus, were classified histologically and examined using quantitative PCR. Transcription NF-κB subunits genes did not differ with either inflammatory intensity or type of inflammatory cell infiltration. Transcription of MCP-1 and IL-6 genes increased with the severity of inflammation, with the involvement of HAS 3 and HAS 2 genes, as opposed to HAS 1 genes. These proinflammatory molecules and hyaluronan synthases in the equine inflamed endometrium do not seem to be regulated by the NF-κB pathway. Hence, separate signalling pathways for the development and progression of equine endometritis and endometrosis may be suggested., (© 2022 The Authors. Reproduction in Domestic Animals published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Since donkey breeding has increased due to their variety of uses, welfare evaluation has become more important. This study aimed to compare donkey, pony, and horse dorsal profiles and head shapes using geometric morphometrics (GM). Photographs of 14 donkeys, 14 ponies, and 14 horses were analyzed using GM, including the sliding semilandmarks method. The variations in the first three principal components (PCs) were PC1: 57.16%, PC2: 16.05%, and PC3: 8.31% for the dorsal profiles and PC1: 44.77%, PC2: 13.46%, and PC3: 7.66% for the head shapes. Both the dorsal profiles and head shapes differed between donkeys and horses (p < 0.0001) but not between donkeys and ponies (p > 0.05). Moreover, both the dorsal profiles and head shapes differed in size between ponies and horses (p < 0.0001) but not in shape (p > 0.05). Higher Mahalanobis and Procrustes distances were noted between donkeys and horses as well between donkeys and ponies than between ponies and horses. The use of geometric morphometrics revealed the differences in the dorsal profiles and head shapes between the studied equids. These differences should be taken into account when adapting welfare scales and methods from horses to donkeys.

The study aimed to conduct advanced semen evaluation tests during routine ram examination periods in the breeding and non-breeding seasons and to investigate their correlation with the dynamics of testicular blood flow. Semen was collected from eighteen rams, and pulse wave Doppler examination before (BBS), during (BS), and after the breeding season (ABS). Routine and advanced semen analysis, including computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA), sperm chromatin dispersion test (SCD), and motile sperm organelle morphology examination (MSOME), were conducted. In Doppler ultrasonography, the peak systolic velocity (PSV), end-diastolic velocity (EDV), resistive index (RI), and pulsatility index (PI) were calculated. In BS period, high sperm concentration (p < 0.0001) and total sperm number/ejaculate (p = 0.008) were noted. During the BBS period, a low percentage of forwarding motility (p = 0.017) and high sperm abnormalities (p = 0.005) were found. Also during this period, both SCD and MSOME revealed high sperm DNA fragmentation (p < 0.0001) and signs of vacuolization (Grade II-IV, p < 0.05). The advanced features of higher sperm abnormalities (Grade IV of MSOME) correlated with an increase RI (ρє <0.60;0.61>) and PI (ρє <0.46;0.52>), whereas the basic percentage of sperm abnormalities correlated with the EDV (ρє <0.44;0.73>) value. One may conclude that the current preliminary study requires further research concerning the monthly examination of a ram to provide full yearly characteristics of the relation between advanced semen evaluation tests and the dynamics of testicular blood flow.

As the detection of horse state after exercise is constantly developing, a link between blood biomarkers and infrared thermography (IRT) was investigated using advanced image texture analysis. The aim of the study was to determine which combinations of RGB (red-green-blue), YUI (brightness-UV-components), YIQ (brightness-IQ-components), and HSB (hue-saturation-brightness) color models, components, and texture features are related to the blood biomarkers of exercise effect. Twelve Polish warmblood horses underwent standardized exercise tests for six consecutive days. Both thermal images and blood samples were collected before and after each test. All 144 obtained IRT images were analyzed independently for 12 color components in four color models using eight texture-feature approaches, including 88 features. The similarity between blood biomarker levels and texture features was determined using linear regression models. In the horses' thoracolumbar region, 12 texture features (nine in RGB, one in YIQ, and two in HSB) were related to blood biomarkers. Variance, sum of squares, and sum of variance in the RGB were highly repeatable between image processing protocols. The combination of two approaches of image texture (histogram statistics and gray-level co-occurrence matrix) and two color models (RGB, YIQ), should be considered in the application of digital image processing of equine IRT.

The horse, as a flight animal with a survival strategy involving rapid escape from predators, is a natural-born athlete with enormous functional plasticity of the respiratory system. Any respiratory dysfunction can cause a decline in ventilation and gas exchange. Therefore, respiratory diseases often lead to exercise intolerance and poor performance. This is one of the most frequent problems encountered by equine internists. Routine techniques used to evaluate respiratory tract diseases include clinical examination, endoscopic examination, radiographic and ultrasonographic imaging, cytological evaluation, and bacterial culture of respiratory secretions. New diagnostic challenges and the growing development of equine medicine has led to the implementation of advanced diagnostic techniques successfully used in human medicine. Among them, the use of computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging significantly broadened the possibilities of anatomical imaging, especially in the diagnosis of upper respiratory tract diseases. Moreover, the implementation of spirometry, electrical impedance tomography (EIT), and impulse oscillation system (IOS) sheds new light on functional diagnostics of respiratory tract diseases, especially those affecting the lower part. Therefore, this review aimed to familiarize the clinicians with the advantages and disadvantages of the advanced diagnostic techniques of the equine respiratory tract and introduce their recent clinical applications in equine medicine.

Appropriate matching of rider-horse sizes is becoming an increasingly important issue of riding horses' care, as the human population becomes heavier. Recently, infrared thermography (IRT) was considered to be effective in differing the effect of 10.6% and 21.3% of the rider:horse bodyweight ratio, but not 10.1% and 15.3%. As IRT images contain many pixels reflecting the complexity of the body's surface, the pixel relations were assessed by image texture analysis using histogram statistics (HS), gray-level run-length matrix (GLRLM), and gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) approaches. The study aimed to determine differences in texture features of thermal images under the impact of 10-12%, >12 ≤15%, >15 <18% rider:horse bodyweight ratios, respectively. Twelve horses were ridden by each of six riders assigned to light (L), moderate (M), and heavy (H) groups. Thermal images were taken pre- and post-standard exercise and underwent conventional and texture analysis. Texture analysis required image decomposition into red, green, and blue components. Among 372 returned features, 95 HS features, 48 GLRLM features, and 96 GLCH features differed dependent on exercise; whereas 29 HS features, 16 GLRLM features, and 30 GLCH features differed dependent on bodyweight ratio. Contrary to conventional thermal features, the texture heterogeneity measures, InvDefMom, SumEntrp, Entropy, DifVarnc, and DifEntrp, expressed consistent measurable differences when the red component was considered.

Infrared thermography (IRT) was applied as a potentially useful tool in the detection of pregnancy in equids, especially native or wildlife. IRT measures heat emission from the body surface, which increases with the progression of pregnancy as blood flow and metabolic activity in the uterine and fetal tissues increase. Conventional IRT imaging is promising; however, with specific limitations considered, this study aimed to develop novel digital processing methods for thermal images of pregnant mares to detect pregnancy earlier with higher accuracy. In the current study, 40 mares were divided into non-pregnant and pregnant groups and imaged using IRT. Thermal images were transformed into four color models (RGB, YUV, YIQ, HSB) and 10 color components were separated. From each color component, features of image texture were obtained using Histogram Statistics and Grey-Level Run-Length Matrix algorithms. The most informative color/feature combinations were selected for further investigation, and the accuracy of pregnancy detection was calculated. The image texture features in the RGB and YIQ color models reflecting increased heterogeneity of image texture seem to be applicable as potential indicators of pregnancy. Their application in IRT-based pregnancy detection in mares allows for earlier recognition of pregnant mares with higher accuracy than the conventional IRT imaging technique.

In this paper, the laser processing of the surface of bulk and layered samples (of thickness 75 nm) of Ni 45 Co 5 Mn 35.5 In 14.5 alloy (NC5MI) was investigated using microsecond laser pulses. A Q-switched pulsed Nd 3+ :YAG laser, operating in the 1st harmonic (which had a wavelength of 1064 nm) with a pulse duration of 250 µs, was used. NC5MI is a metal resistant to thermal laser processing because its reflection coefficient is close to unity for long wavelengths. The aim of this paper was to learn the forms of laser processing (heating, microprocessing, ablation) for which the above-specified type of laser is useful. The samples were irradiated with various fluences in the interval of 5-32 J·cm -2 . The effect of the laser interaction with the surface was explored by SEM microscopy. The threshold fluences for the bulk sample were determined as: the visible damage threshold (F th d = 2 ± 0.2 J·cm -2 ), the melting threshold (F th m = 10 ± 0.5 J·cm -2 ), and the deep melting threshold (F th dm = 32 J·cm -2 ). Unexpectedly, these values wereincreased for the layer sample due to its silicon substrate. We have concluded that this type of laser radiation is advantageous for the annealing and melting of, or drilling holes in, the alloy, but disadvantageousto the ablation of the alloy.

Endometrosis is an important mares' disease which considerably decreases their fertility. As classic endometrial classification methods might be insufficient for tissue pathological evaluation, further categorization into active/inactive and destructive/non-destructive types was developed by Hoffmann and others. This study aimed to compare NF-κB pathway genes transcription among histopathological types of endometrosis, following Hoffmann and co-authors' classification. Endometrial samples, collected postmortem from cyclic mares ( n = 100) in estrus or diestrus, were classified histologically and used for gene transcription assessment. Gene transcription of NF-κB subunits ( RelA , NF-κB1 , NF-κB2 ), pro-inflammatory molecules ( MCP-1 , IL-6 ), and hyaluronan synthases ( HAS 1 , HAS 2 , HAS 3 ) was compared among endometrosis types (active, non-active, destructive, non-destructive). Most individual mRNA samples showed high expression of RelA , NF-κB1 , and MCP-1 gene transcripts and the destructive type of endometrosis, simultaneously. The expression of RelA and NF-κB1 genes was higher in active destructive group than in the other groups only in the follicular phase, as well as being higher in the inactive destructive group than in the others, only in the mid-luteal phase. The increase in gene transcription of the NF-κB canonical activation pathway in destructive endometrosis may suggest the highest changes in extracellular matrix deposition. Moreover, the estrous cycle phase might influence fibrosis pathogenesis.

As the breeding of donkeys has increased due to different types of use, welfare evaluation importance increases. This equid's welfare state has been described using body condition indicators and the geometric morphometrics method. However, the dorsal profile has not yet been assessed in donkeys. In this study, the body condition score (BCS), fatty neck score (FNS), dental condition score (DCS), sex, and breed were used as criteria of dorsal profile deformations. Photographs of 40 donkeys were analyzed using geometric morphometrics. Within the entire set of dorsal profiles, the variance of the first three principal components (PCs) was PC1 = 37.41%, PC2 = 23.43%, and PC3 = 13.34%. The dorsal profiles displayed deformation as an effect of FNS and BCS on size (FNS p = 0.012; BCS p = 0.024) and shape (FNS p < 0.0001; BCS p < 0.0001), rather than as an effect of DCS ( p < 0.0001), sex ( p = 0.0264), and breed ( p < 0.0001) only on shape. The highest distances among the categories (Mahalanobis distances: MD ≥ 13.26; Procrustes distances: PD ≥ 0.044) were noted for FNS. The lowest distances were noted between jennets and males (MD = 4.58; PD = 0.012) and between BCS 1 and BCS 2 (MD = 4.70; PD = 0.018). Donkeys' body condition affects their dorsal profile and both FNS and BCS measurements should be considered when a donkey's dorsal profile is investigated.

Infrared thermography is a non-invasive technique which allows to distinguish between pregnant and non-pregnant animals. Detecting accurate body surface temperatures can be challenging due to external factors altering thermograph measurements. This study aimed to determine the associations between the ambient temperature, the hair coat features and the temperatures of mares' abdomens. It compared pregnant and non-pregnant mares throughout 11 months. The research was carried out on 40 Konik Polski mares, which were divided into pregnant and non-pregnant groups. The temperature (Tmax, maximal; Taver, average; Tmin, minimal) of the mares' abdomen was evaluated in two regions of interest: the whole area of the lateral surface of the mares' abdomen (Px1) and the flank area of the lateral surface of mares' abdomen (Px2). During the increasing period, the slopes in the linear regression equation did not differ significantly for ambient (Tamb) and surface temperatures in both groups. In the decreasing period, the slopes did not differ significantly for Tamb and Tmax in the non-pregnant group. They also did not differ for Tamb and Taver in Px1 and Tamb and Tmin in Px1 in both pregnant and non-pregnant groups respectively. Other slopes varied significantly (p < .001). There was no evidence of parallel changes in hair coat features and measured temperatures. The flank area appears more suitable for thermal imaging in pregnant mares due to the seasonal fluctuations in hair coat lengths., (© 2021 The Authors. Reproduction in Domestic Animals published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.)