Search

Abstract Gut microbiota play an important role in the health and disease of Asian elephants, however, its characteristics at each stage of life have not been thoroughly investigated in maintaining and regulating health of elephants. This study, therefore, aimed to characterize the profiles of the gut microbiota of captive Asian elephants from infants to the elderly. Gut microbiota were identified by 16S rRNA sequencing from the feces of captive Asian elephants with varying age groups, including infant calves, suckling calves, weaned calves, subadult and adult elephants, and geriatric elephants. The diversity of the gut microbiota was lowest in infants, stable during adulthood, and slightly decreased in the geriatric period. The gut microbiota of the infant elephants was dominated by milk-fermenting taxa including genus Bifidobacterium of family Bifidobacteriaceae together with genus Akkermansia. The fiber-fermenting taxa such as Lachnospiraceae_NK3A20_group were found to be increased in suckling elephants in differential abundance analysis by Analysis of Compositions of Microbiomes with Bias Correction (ANCOM-BC). The gut microbiota profiles after weaning until the adult period has been uniform as indicated by no significant differences in beta diversity between groups. However, the composition of the gut microbiota was found to change again in geriatric elephants. Understanding of the composition of the gut microbiota of captive Asian elephants at various life stages could be beneficial for promoting good health throughout their lifespan, as well as ensuring the welfare of captive elephants.

ABSTRACT: Thai indigenous roosters are exposed to unsuitable temperatures and humidity, resulting in a lower reproductive potential. Kaempferia parviflora (KP) extract containing methoxyflavones was fed to roosters to improve their reproductive performance. Thirty-two Thai native roosters were orally administered KP extract at 300, 450, and 600 mg, calculated according to their average body weight, for at least 14 d before semen collection and continued supplementation until the end of the experiment. The nonsupplemented group served as the control. Fresh semen in terms of semen volume, sperm concentration, mass movement score, and sperm viability were evaluated. Semen preservation at 5°C and fertility test were examined for total motility (MOT), progressive motility (PMOT), sperm viability, and lipid peroxidation up to 48 h of storage. Testosterone concentrations and testicular function were also determined. The results showed that the highest sperm concentration and sperm motility of fresh semen were observed in KP extract at 600 mg (P < 0.001). KP extract at 600 mg resulted in higher sperm viability than the control and KP extract at 300 mg (P < 0.05), but was not different from KP at 450 mg (P > 0.05). The highest MOT, PMOT, and viability were found in the roosters that received 600 mg oral KP extract (P < 0.05), while those of the roosters that received oral KP extract 300 mg and the control were the lowest (P < 0.05) at all storage times. Lipid peroxidation was significantly lower in the KP extract up to 24 h (P < 0.05). The fertility and hatchability of the KP extract at 600 mg at T48 showed a minor decrease compared to the control at T0. These results might be inferred as a result of good spermatogenesis, as revealed by the results of histological examination and testosterone activity. In summary, oral administration of 600 mg KP extract improved sperm production and successfully preserved rooster semen for a long duration of up to 48 h of storage.

The international travel ban instituted by the Thai government in March 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how tourist camp elephants were managed, with reductions in exercise opportunities, longer chaining hours, and diminished food provisioning. This study was conducted to determine how those changes affected health and welfare biomarkers in individual elephants over the 2 years of the countrywide lockdown (April 2020–April 2022). Blood and fecal samples were collected from 58 elephants at six camps (monthly in Year 1, quarterly in Year 2) and analyzed for stress biomarkers — fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM), serum oxidative stress [malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG)], and stress leukograms. Overall, fGCM concentrations increased within the first few months and remained higher than pre-COVID levels, as did the H/L ratio, a measure affected by cortisol. Serum 8-OHdG, an indicator of DNA oxidative damage, also increased over time, while monocytosis and lymphopenia further suggested alterations in immune function as a result of stress. By contrast, another marker of oxidative stress, serum MDA, declined, possibly in response to reduced roughage and supplement intake. A notable finding was a seasonal pattern of fGCM that was significantly different from previous studies. Whereas higher fGCM during the rainy season were observed in this study, previously, concentrations were highest during the winter, high tourist season. Thus, ironically, both the presence and absence of tourists have been associated with increased fGCM concentrations, albeit for different reasons. Camp management factors negatively affecting stress outcomes included shorter chain lengths, longer chain hours, lack of exercise, and reduced roughage and supplements. Overall, it was clear that camps struggled to maintain adequate care for elephants during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the importance of tourist income and need for contingency plans to cope with potential future disruptions to tourism.

The international travel ban initiated in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how captive elephants were managed in Thailand. A lack of tourists and associated income meant elephants were chained longer with reduced food provisions, had fewer mahouts, and limited exercise like riding, which likely affected health and welfare. Fifty-eight elephants from six tourist camps were assigned a body condition score (BCS) and blood samples were collected monthly for 2 years during the travel ban to measure: (1) muscle enzymes [creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]; (2) liver enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)]; (3) lipids [total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low (LDL) and high (HDL) density lipoproteins]; and metabolic function [glucose, insulin, fructosamine]. Serum CK concentrations were lower at the end of the study, possibly due to no tourist activities like riding. Changes in liver function included increased AST and ALP, also possibly due to physical inactivity. Feeding less bananas and sugar cane was associated with fewer elephants in the obese category and lower TG concentrations. However, increases in glucose, insulin and fructosamine were observed as local people returned to feed elephants after lifting travel restrictions. In sum, changes in several health biomarkers were observed in association with restricted activities and food resources. Camps need better plans to meet the health and welfare needs of elephants during any future disruptions to the tourism industry, although reduced feeding of sweet treats appeared to have positive effects on body condition and metabolic function.

Background Dugongs are marine mammals with a crescent-shaped tail fluke and a concave trailing margin that belong to the family Dugongidae., They are distributed widely in the warm coastal waters of the Indo-Pacific region. Importantly, the population of dugongs has decreased over the past decades as they have been classified as rare marine mammals. Previous studies have investigated the habitat and genetic diversity of dugongs. However, a comprehensive histological investigation of their tissue has not yet been conducted. This study provides unique insight into the organs of dugongs and compares them with other mammal species. Methods Tissue sections were stained with Harris’s hematoxylin and eosin Y. The histological structure of 17 organ tissues obtained from eight systems was included in this study. Tissue sections were obtained from the urinary system (kidney), muscular system (striated skeletal muscle and smooth muscle), cardiovascular system (cardiac muscle (ventricle), coronary artery, and coronary vein), respiratory system (trachea and lung), gastrointestinal system (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, and pancreas), reproductive system (testis), lymphatic system (spleen and thymus), and endocrine system (pancreas). Results While most structures were similar to those of other mammal species, there were some differences in the tissue sections of dugongs when compared with other mammalian species and manatees. These include the kidneys of dugongs, which were non-lobular and had a smooth, elongated exterior resulting in a long medullary crest, whereas the dugong pyloric epithelium did not have overlying stratified squamous cells and was noticably different from the Florida manatee. Discussion Histological information obtained from various organs of the dugong can serve as an essential foundation of basal data for future microanatomical studies. This information can also be used as high-value data in the diagnosis and pathogenesis of sick dugongs or those with an unknown cause of death.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the tourism industry, especially in Thailand. Starting in April 2020, the Thai government banned international travel and all elephant tourist camps closed. A wide variety of management changes were implemented because of the lack of income from tourists. This study surveyed 30 camps that cared for >400 elephants in northern Thailand to obtain information on camp, elephant, and mahout management during the COVID-19 pandemic from April 2020 to 2022 compared to the year before. The survey consisted of questionnaires that interviewed elephant camp owners, managers, veterinarians, and mahouts, and captured information on changes in camp operations, including numbers of tourists, elephants and mahouts, elephant and mahout activities, and veterinary care. Results revealed significant changes in camp structure, elephant work activities and general care. Staff layoffs led to a decrease in the ratio of mahouts to elephants from 1:1 to 1:2. Elephant activities, distance walked, and amounts of food were reduced when compared to pre-COVID-19, while chain hours were increased due to reduced activity. Overall, the COVID-19 crisis altered elephant management significantly, potentially affecting animal welfare resulting from changes in nutrition, health, exercise, and numbers of mahouts. We hope to use these data to develop better management plans and guidelines for elephant camps in Thailand so they can cope with the current and potential imminent pandemics that result in decreased tourism income. A follow-up study will measure health and welfare markers in relation to COVID-19 induced changes to determine if any camps adapted management to still meet elephant health and welfare needs, and could serve as models for responding to future pandemics.

The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is critically endangered, so assisted reproductive technologies, including artificial insemination, are important conservation tools. For wild and domestic felids, electroejaculation (EE) is the most common semen collection method, with protocols optimized to obtain sufficient amounts of viable sperm for artificial insemination. However, less attention has been paid to ensuring animal wellbeing during the process. This study examined the effects of three EE protocols (Low, 2–5 volts; Medium, 3–6 volts; High, 4–7 volts) on semen quality, testicular size, serum testosterone, creatine kinase (CK), and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations, and serum cortisol as a proxy for stress. Blood samples were collected before, during, and after each EE series. Seminal plasma pH, and sperm motility, viability, and morphology were evaluated after each procedure. Seminal plasma and sperm pellet MDA concentrations were also determined. Primary sperm abnormalities and seminal plasma MDA were higher in the Low compared to Medium and High voltage groups (p < 0.05). Serum CK in the High voltage group increased during the EE series (p < 0.05), suggesting the potential for muscle damage. However, no significant changes were observed for serum cortisol, testosterone, or MDA concentrations. Results suggest the Medium voltage protocol produced good quality samples at lower voltages than the High protocol with no negative effect on muscle function, which might be better for animal welfare.

This study investigated how camp management and tourist activities affect body condition, adrenocortical function, lipid profiles and metabolic status in female tourist elephants. We compared twice monthly serum insulin, glucose, fructosamine, total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations to body condition scores (BCS) at five camps with different management styles (e.g., tourist activities, work type, diet) between the High (November-February) and Low (March-October) tourist seasons. There were significant camp effects on health parameters, with BCS, TC, HDL, insulin and glucose being among the highest, and G:I being the lowest (less heathy) in elephants at an observation camp compared to those at camps where elephants received exercise by providing rides to tourists. Differences between High and Low tourist season months also were found for all measures, except TG and FGM concentrations. Both work time and walking distance were negatively correlated to glucose, fructosamine and insulin, while walking distance was negatively related to FGM concentrations. By contrast, positive associations were found between tourist number and BCS, TG, and insulin, perhaps related to tourists feeding elephants. Quantity of supplementary diet items (e.g., bananas, sugar cane, pumpkin) were positively correlated with FGM concentrations, glucose, fructosamine, and insulin. This study provides evidence that body condition, adrenal activity, metabolic markers, and lipid profiles in captive elephants may be affected by visitor numbers, work activities, and the amount of supplementary foods offered by tourists. Some activities appear to have negative (e.g., feeding), while others (e.g., exercise) may have positive effects on health and welfare. We conclude that camps adopting a more hands-off approach to tourism need to ensure elephants remain healthy by providing environments that encourage activity and rely on more natural diets or foraging.

We previously found relationships between body condition and physiological function affecting health and welfare of female tourist camp elephants in Thailand, and used that approach to conduct a similar study of bull elephants in the same camps (n = 13). A body condition score (BCS) was done every other month, and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations were measured twice monthly for 1 year. Effects of season, camp management and tourist activity on lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic factors [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] were determined and correlated to measures of body condition, testosterone and FGM. Positive correlations were found between BCS and TG, between FGM and TG, HDL and glucose, and between testosterone and HDL, whereas BCS and testosterone were negatively associated with the G:I. There was a significant positive relationship between FGM and testosterone. Elevated FGM concentrations were associated with altered lipid and metabolic profiles and were higher in winter compared to summer and rainy seasons. Insulin and glucose levels were higher, while the G:I was lowest in the winter season. Strong positive associations were found between TC and HDL, LDL and HDL and glucose, and glucose and insulin. By contrast, negative relationships were found between the G:I and HDL and glucose, and between insulin and G:I. Differences also were found between High and Low tourist season months for FGM, insulin, and G:I. Last, there was notable variation among the camps in measured parameters, which together with tourist season effects suggests camp management may affect physiological function and welfare; some negatively like feeding high calorie treats, others positively, like exercise. Last, compared to females, bull elephants appear to be in better physical health based on normal BCSs, lower insulin levels and higher G:I ratios.

Elephant camps are among the most popular destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants. The objectives of this study were to examine relationships between FGM (fecal glucocorticoid metabolite) concentrations and camp management factors (work routine, walking, restraint, rest area, foraging), and to other welfare indicators (stereotypic behaviors, body condition, foot health, and skin wounds). Data were obtained on 84 elephants (18 males and 66 females) from 15 elephant camps over a 1-year period. Elephants were examined every 3 months and assigned a body condition score, foot score, and wound score. Fecal samples were collected twice monthly for FGM analysis. Contrary to some beliefs, elephants in the observation only program where mahouts did not carry an ankus for protection had higher FGM concentrations compared to those at camps that offered riding with a saddle and shows. Elephants that were tethered in the forest at night had lower FGM concentrations compared to elephants that were kept in open areas inside the camps. There was an inverse relationship between FGM concentrations and occurrence of stereotypy, which was not anticipated. Thus, assessing adrenal activity via monitoring of FGM concentrations can provide important information on factors affecting the well-being of elephants. Results suggest that more naturalistic housing conditions and providing opportunities to exercise may be good for elephants under human care in Thailand, and that a no riding, no hook policy does not necessarily guarantee good welfare.

Asian elephants have been an important part of wildlife ecotourism in Thailand for over two decades. Elephants in tourist camps are exposed to a variety of management styles and daily activities that can potentially affect health and welfare. This study investigated relationships between a novel welfare biomarker, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and daily camp activities, and compared results to glucocorticoid (GC) measures. Often no-riding camps are portrayed as providing better welfare than camps that offer riding. Therefore, we predicted that elephants at no-riding camps would have lower GC and higher IgA concentrations, and a low GC/IgA ratio. Forty-four female elephants from six elephant camps were divided into three groups based on riding activities: saddle-riding, bareback-riding, and no-riding. Fecal and salivary samples were collected monthly for 1 year along with evaluations of body condition, foot health, and wounding. Camp environment and management varied among camps, although the major difference was in riding activities. Concentrations of GCs and IgA varied among the working groups, but not always consistently between sample matrices. Overall fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were lowest in the saddle-riding group. Only in one bareback-riding camp did the elephants exhibit a potentially positive welfare response with a low GC/IgA ratio over time. Other results varied between the two biomarkers, with considerable variability across camps, suggesting there is more to good welfare than whether elephants participate in riding or not. Several other human-induced stressors, like chaining, ankus use, and limited social opportunities are likely to be impacting well-being and should be considered to ensure management practices meet physical and psychological welfare needs.

This review paper is a synthesis of results from multiple studies that we have conducted over the past several years using similar methodologies to identify factors related to welfare of captive populations of elephants in North American zoos and Thailand tourist camps. Using multiple conservation physiology tools, we found that, despite vastly disparate management systems, there are commonalities in how environmental and husbandry factors affect physical and physiological outcomes. Elephants appear to have better welfare, based on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analyses, when housed under conditions that provide a more enriched, stimulating, and less restrictive environment. We also found it is essential to balance diet and exercise for good body condition and metabolic function. In Thailand, use of tools to control elephants, such as the ankus (i.e., guide, hook) and chains, did not equate to poor welfare per se, nor did riding; however, improper uses were associated with higher wound scores and FGM concentrations. Foot health was good overall in both regions, with cracks being the most common problem, and better foot scores were found in elephants kept on softer substrates. Based on these findings, science-based guidelines are being developed in Thailand, while in North America, changes are being incorporated into elephant standards and husbandry resource guides. Management across venues can be improved by encouraging elephant exploration and exercise, establishing socially compatibility groups, ensuring proper use of tools, and providing balanced diets. We contend there is no “one-size-fits-all” management strategy to guarantee good welfare for elephants, but there are essential needs that must be met regardless of where or how they are managed. Future studies are needed to find ways to better socialize elephants; determine how temperament affects coping styles and resilience; study the importance of good handler-elephant relationships; identify more ways for elephants to engage with the environment; and assess the effect of life history on subsequent physiological and psychological well-being.

Background Elephants are the largest and heaviest living terrestrial animals, but information on their histology is still lacking. This study provides a unique insight into the elephant’s organs and also provides a comparison between juvenile Asian elephants and adult Asian elephants or other species. Here we report on the histological structure of 24 organs, including the skin, brain (cerebrum, cerebellar hemisphere, vermis, thalamus, midbrain), spinal cord, sciatic nerve, striated skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, bone (flat bone and long bone), cartilage (hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage), heart (right atrium, right ventricle), blood vessels (aorta, pulmonary artery and caudal vena cava), trunk, trachea, lung, tongue, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum), liver and pancreas, kidney, ovary, uterus (body and horn) and spleen of two juvenile Asian elephants. Methods Tissue sections were stained with Harris’s hematoxylin and eosin Y. Results While almost all structures were similar to those of other species or adult elephants, some structures were different from other mammalian species, such as: plexiform bone was found in flat bone only; a thin trachealismuscle was observed in the trachea; and no serous or mucinous glands were found in the submucosa of the trachea. Discussion Histological information from various organs can serve as an important foundation of basal data for future microanatomical studies, and help in the diagnosis and pathogenesis in sick elephants or those with an unknown cause of death.

Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and physiological function, and identified mitigating management strategies to optimize health and welfare. A similar methodological approach was used in this study, which evaluated a body condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest) every other month and fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] related to measures of body condition and adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS was 3-3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5-5 (very overweight); no elephants had a BCS

Operation of the farrowing house is essential to the productivity of a swine farm, requiring not only good management but also knowledge of the behavior of sows and piglets. Stress can negatively affect production in farm animals and could be a factor in production indexes. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of artificial sucking sounds on the behavior of piglets and fecal glucocorticoid (FGM) concentrations of sows. A total of 30 sows were divided into two groups: a treatment group (15 sows) was exposed to artificial sucking sounds and a control group (15 sows) was not. Both groups received the same management; the two open-house system locations were separated by a distance of about 270 meters. The study had three key objectives: to compare farrowing indexes and to observe the sucking behavior of piglets using CCTV cameras. Fecal samples were collected daily for 21 days from the period after parturition to weaning to assess adrenal activity. The treatment group had a significantly higher average number of times piglets came to a sow’s udder, and sows had a shorter onset time for the first piglet to come to the sow’s udder than the control group (both P0.05), particularly for litter weight gain and percent preweaning mortality. In addition, the weaning to first service interval of the treatment group was shorter than the control group (P

Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus) are a threatened species in Thailand and the focus of captive breeding for possible reintroduction. However, little is known of their biology or what factors in the captive environment affect welfare. Our objective was to determine the impact of gender, season, and management on goral adrenal activity. We hypothesized that differences in fecal glucocorticoid concentrations would be related to animal density. Fecal samples were collected 3 days/week for 1 year from 63 individuals (n = 32 males, 31 females) at two facilities that house the majority of goral in Thailand: Omkoi Wildlife Sanctuary (Omkoi), an off-exhibit breeding center that houses goral in individual pens (16 pens; n = 8 males, 8 females) and in small family groups (8 pens; n = 8 males, 8 females); and the Chiang Mai Night Safari (NS), a zoo that maintains 31 goral (n = 17 males, 14 females) in one large pen. Glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were higher in male than female goral at Omkoi throughout the year, and there was a seasonal effect on adrenal activity (p