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A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of Q fever in sheep in the northern part of Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study aimed to determine Coxiella burnetii infection and its risk factors in sheep in Kaduna State. A total of 400 blood samples consisting of 259 samples from females and 141 from males were aseptically collected from the jugular vein of sheep from flocks in Kaduna State. The sera obtained were screened for Q fever using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA). The obtained data were analysed to determine whether there is a relationship between sex, age, and the animals tested. The analysis revealed that 8.0% of the sera was seropositive by iELISA. There was no significant difference in Q fever seropositivity in the study area according to the sex of sheep (P > 0.05). There was a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05) in Q fever seropositivity according to the age of sheep. This study indicated a high seroprevalence of Q fever mainly among female animals and older sheep. Further studies are required to determine the epizootiology of Q fever in the study area more precisely.

Newcastle disease is one of the greatest constraints to the development of poultry production in Nigeria. In this study, the spatial distribution of Newcastle disease antibodies was determined using the Geographic Information System. A total of 400 serum samples were collected from chickens in districts around Kaduna Metropolis and screened for Newcastle disease virus antibodies using the haemagglutination inhibition test done according to the procedure of OIE (2002). The spatial distribution demonstrated that the highest antibody titre level for Newcastle disease was closely associated with communities that were at entry points (Zaria— Kaduna road; Nnamdi Azikiwe bypass road; Television garage; Abuja—Kaduna expressway and Kachia road) to the metropolis and houses that are closely situated near live bird markets signifying the importance of bird movements in the spread of the disease. About 31 % (124 of 400) of chickens had antibodies to Newcastle disease virus, with exotics breeds (32.0 %) with more Newcastle disease virus antibodies than local breeds (29.8 %). The Newcastle disease prevalence was 33.9 % (39 out of 115), 31.8 % (41 out of 129) and 28.2 % (44 out of 156) for Kaduna North, Kaduna South and Chikun Local Government Areas (LGA), respectively. A Newcastle disease prevalence of 29.8 % (54 out of 181) was recorded in the local chickens, while 32.0 % (70 out of 219) was obtained from the exotic chickens.

Causes of losses in rural poultry and measures adopted by farmers for the management of Newcastle disease (ND) were identified. The study was conducted in 13 local governments, in 33 villages and 223 households. Data on the population, health, causes of losses, management system, productivity, extension services and ethnoveterinary practices were collected using interview and a structured questionnaire. Of the three species of local poultry investigated, the chicken was raised by all respondents. A mean flock size of 18 local chickens, 16 guinea fowls and 7 ducks were recorded per household. Over 50% of the households kept 2 0r more species of poultry with chickens and guinea fowls being the most frequent (79%). All farmers provided supplementary food and water for birds but none offered commercial feed. The duck was a better hatcher than the chicken. ND was the major cause of losses of rural poultry. Poultry extension service was lacking. Majority (79.4%) of the respondents provided houses for their stock at night and 78% used traditional medicines for the management of diseases. Very few (1.38%) consulted veterinary clinics. As ND was reported to be a major threat to the development and survival of local poultry, adequate management measures in the form of improved feeding, housing, extension services and vaccination must be put in place to improve their productivity.

A to~year study of poultry diseases diagnosed at the Avian clinic of Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria was conducted. In all 2999 cases were studied. The commonest diseases afflicting poultry were Newcastle disease, 31.2%, Gumboro 12.0%, Ectoparasitism 7.7%, Fowl pox 6.8%, Helminthiasis 6.6% and Coccidiosis 6.1%. Most outbreaks occurred in the months of May and June with the highest incidence in 1989. Fowl pox (FP), infectious bursal disease (180) and coccidiosis were more prevalent during the rainy season (May-October) while Newcastle disease (NCD) and Aspergillosis were more prevalent in the dry season (November - April). More cases of chronic respiratory disease (CRD), helminthiasis and salmonellosis were found in poultry over 12 weeks old while gumboro, fowl pox and · coccidiosis were found more in birds less than 7 weeks old. It was concluded from this study that viral diseases (NCD, IBO, FP) ectoparasitism and helminthiasis were the most important poultry diseases in Zaria and young birds were more susceptible. The need for an effective poultry health programme is imperative. It is therefore recommended that effective and uniform vaccination schedules should be conducted along with regular deworming and ectoparasite control to enhance poultry production. Keywords: Disease, Poultry, Zaria

This study was carried out to obtain a 16-year retrospective data on dog bites/suspected dog rabies cases and to determine the prevalence of rabies antigen in the brains of dogs slaughtered for human consumption in Makurdi, Benue State. Data for retrospective studies (2003 - 2018) of dog bite/suspected rabies cases was collected from both government and private veterinary clinics in Makurdi while dog brain samples were collected from the dog slaughter slab at the mammy market in Makurdi. A total of 139 dog bite/suspected rabies cases were reported between January, 2003 and December, 2018 in the veterinary clinics with majority (55.3%) of the victims being children less than 16-years old. Only 18 (12.2%) of the offending dogs were quarantined at the time of bite, 11 of which died in quarantine. Five samples from the dogs that died in quarantine were later confirmed positive for rabies at the National Veterinary Research Institute Vom, Nigeria. Of the 464 brain samples collected from the slaughter slab, 52 (11.2%) tested positive for rabies antigen through the direct fluorescent antibody technique. The presence of rabies antigen in apparently healthy dogs may serve as a source of spread of the virus to the public as most people do not regard bites from healthy dogs as possible exposures. There is need for public health awareness on the health challenges posed by dog bites especially on the possibility of developing rabies from such bites, and the need to promptly report every bite so that proper medical attention can be given. With the world looking at eliminating canine mediated rabies by the year 2030, mass enlightenment programmes regarding rabies and its prevention in Makurdi is strongly recommended to help achieve this goal. Keywords: Bites, Dogs, Rabies, Makurdi, Nigeria, Retrospective

Coxiellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii which affect the prolific and reproductive competences of animals. A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of coxiellosis (Q fever) in flocks of goats in Kaduna State, Nigeria.The study aimed to determinethe seroprevalence of coxiellosis in goats in Birnin Gwari and Maigana agro-ecological zone of Kaduna State, Nigeria. A total of 400serum samples from goats of both sexes and of different age groupswere collected and screened forCoxiella burnetiiantibodiesusing indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA).Out of the 400 sera analysed,8.8% wereseropositive coxiellosis. Of the 253 female goats tested, 9.5% were seropositive, while 7.5% were seropositive out of the 147 male goats tested. There was no statistically significant association between sex of goats and coxiellosis (Q fever). A significant association was detected betweenage of goatstested andsensitivity of iELISA, non-significantassociation was found between breed ofgoats with sensitivity of iELISA. The study indicates that coxiellosis exists with high prevalence predominantly among femalegoats and is major public health challenge calling for awareness amongstinterested party for organized surveillance for the diseases in goats in Nigeria.

West Nile virus (WNV) causes a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease of public health importance. The aim of this study was to determine the state of WNV infection in horses and detect the virus antigen in mosquitoes trapped in stables in Kaduna State Nigeria. The study was carried out in Kaduna State, Nigeria, and 368 horses were screened for the presence of antibodies against WNV using an IgG competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Of the 368 samples tested, 331 (89.9%) were positive for WNV antibodies. Mosquitoes from the stables were tested for WNV antigen using a VectorTest kit, and of the 31 pools of adult mosquitoes tested, only 5 (16.1%) pools tested positive for WNV antigen. This finding showed that WNV infection has occurred in horses and that there is evidence of circulation of the virus by mosquitoes in Kaduna State, Nigeria.

Brucellosis is an ancient and one of the world’s most widespread zoonotic diseases affecting public health and animal production. A cross-sectional study using simple random sampling was conducted between May and December, 2016 in Maigana and Birnin Gwari Agro-ecological zones of Kaduna State to determine the sero-prevalence of brucellosis in sheep. In addition the risk factors associated with sero-positivity in sheep were also assessed. A total of 400 sera samples comprised of 141 from males and 259 from females sheep were collected and screened for the presence of Brucella antibodies using Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) and competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Sera analysis revealed that, 16.5% and 10.8% were seropositive to Brucella infection by RBPT and cELISA, respectively. There was statistically significant association between sex of the sheep and seropositivity to Brucella infection using RBPT (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, no statistically significant association between the age and breed of sheep and seropositivity to Brucella infection using RBPT and cELISA, respectively (P > 0.05). This study shows evidence of Brucella infection with high prevalence mainly among female sheep and the disease can be considered as a potential risk for both susceptible animals and humans in the study area. Therefore, creating awareness about brucellosis, interdisciplinary partnership and complementary effort between veterinary and public health professionals is very important to control the transmission of brucellosis.Keywords: Brucellosis, Kaduna State, Sheep, Sero-prevalence

A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis and Q fever in cattle in Maigana and Birnin Gwari agro-ecological zone of Kaduna State, Nigeria. This study aimed at determining the significance of Brucella spp. and Coxiella burnetti infections in cattle. A total of 400 sera samples (139 from males and 261 from females cattle) were collected and screened for brucellosis using Rose Bengal Plate test (RBPT) and competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for brucellosis and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) for Q fever. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on the sampled animals from the study population. Data were analyzed to determine association and risk factors. Sera analysis revealed that, 18.5 and 6.8% were seropositive by RBPT and cELISA for brucellosis, while 6.2% was seropositive by iELISA for Q fever. A significant association was detected between cattle sex and sensitivity of RBPT for detecting Brucella. Meanwhile, a non-significant association was found between cattle age and breed with sensitivity of RBPT, cELISA, and iELISA. The study indicates that brucellosis and Q ever exist with high prevalence particularly among female cattle. This presents a serious public health problem, calling for greater awareness among stakeholders and for co-ordinated surveillance for the diseases among cattle populations in Nigeria.

Background In 2012/13, the Federal government of Nigeria approved the surveillance of salmonellae in commercial poultry farms with the aim of generating baseline data for the development of a control programme. That baseline provided an opportunity to investigate potential risk factors in commercial layer farms. Methods Five hundred and twenty-three farms were evaluated for the presence of Salmonella. Each farmer was interviewed through a structured questionnaire. Univariate analysis identified 26 variables potentially associated with Salmonella presence on the farms, with different levels of significance. To simultaneously evaluate the effect of these variables, a multivariable logistic regression model was implemented. Results Farmers that are member of the Poultry Association of Nigeria (PAN) emerged as a risk factor, as well as being farmer as exclusive occupation. The risk of Salmonella increased in farms with a combined housing system as compared to farms with a single housing system. Moreover, in terms of farm management the use of plastic egg crates had a higher risk of Salmonella presence compared to paper crates. Higher risk of contamination was also identified in farms having regular contact with animal health workers, since this could be indicative of animal health problems requiring continuous assistance. Farms with no previous outbreak of salmonellosis were associated with an increase risk, since most of the farms in this category were newly established. With regard to feeding, the use of coccidiostats and commercial feeds were associated with the spread of Salmonella. Unexpectedly, the presence of other farms at distances further than 1 km away was associated with an increase in Salmonella presence as compared to farms which were in closer proximity. Close proximity among farms could favour the application of stricter biosecurity measures. Conclusions The results of the survey can be considered a baseline for implementing effective measures aimed at reducing the Salmonella prevalence in Nigerian laying hen farms.

Bats are often consumed by some ethnic groups in Nigeria despite association of bats with many important emerging viruses. More than 300 bats representing eight species were captured during 2010-2011 in eight locations of northern Nigeria. Available fecal swabs (n = 95) were screened for the presence of arenaviruses, CoVs, paramyxoviruses (PMVs), reoviruses, rhabdoviruses, and influenza viruses using generic reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assays. Here, we document the detection of CoVs, PMVs, reoviruses, and rotaviruses (RVs) in Nigerian bats. The Nigerian bat CoVs are grouped within other bat SARS-CoV-like viruses identified from Ghana in a sister clade next to the human SARS-CoV clade. The phylogenetic analysis indicated a broad range of RVs present in Nigerian bats, some cluster with human RVs and some represent novel species. Our study adds that continuing global surveillance for viruses in bats to understand their origin, adaptation, and evolution is important to prevent and control future zoonotic disease outbreaks.

The Kachia Grazing Reserve (KGR) is located in Kaduna state in north-western Nigeria and consists of 6 contiguous blocks housing 744 defined households (HH), all engaged in livestock keeping. It is considered as a homogenous epidemiological unit and a defined study area. In 2012, all cattle and sheep of 40 selected HH were sampled to determine sero-prevalence of antibodies to foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and of FMDV. The overall sero-prevalence of antibodies to the non-structural 3ABC protein (NSP-3ABC ELISA) was 28.9% (380/1,315) (30.6% cattle; 16.3% sheep), and in 4.5% (62/1,380) (5% cattle; 0.6% sheep) of the examined sera FMD viral RNA could be detected by real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR). Additionally, in 2012 and 2014 serum, epithelium and probang samples were collected from cattle in reported FMD outbreaks and the causative FMDVs were molecularly characterized. Approximately half (28/59) of the outbreak sera reacted positive in NSP-3ABC ELISA, and 88% (52/59) of the outbreak sera contained detectable viral RNA. Overall, antibodies against five FMDV serotypes (O, A, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) were detected by solid phase competitive ELISA with combinations of two or more serotypes being common. Of the 21 FMDVs that could be isolated 19 were sequenced and 18 were confirmed as SAT2 (lineage VII) while one was characterized as serotype O (EA-3 topotype). Phylogenetic analysis revealed a close relationship between Nigerian FMDV strains and strains in this region and even with strains in North-Africa. Our findings indicate that FMD constitutes an endemic health problem to cattle rearing in the agro-pastoralist community in the KGR and that the KGR is not a closed epidemiological unit. Insight into the local FMDV epidemiology and in the circulating FMDV serotypes/strains is of support to the relevant authorities in Nigeria when considering the need for an FMD control policy to improve animal production in grazing reserves.

Summary The knowledge of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) dynamics and epidemiology in Nigeria and the West Africa subregion is important to support local and regional control plans and international risk assessment. Foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype South African territories (SAT)1 was isolated, identified and characterized from an FMD outbreak in cattle in Nigeria in 2015, 35 years after the last report of FMDV SAT1 in West Africa. The VP1 coding sequence of the Nigerian 2015 SAT1 isolates diverges from reported SAT1 topotypes resulting in a separate topotype. The reporting of a novel FMDV SAT1 strain in the virus pool 5 (West and Central Africa) highlights the dynamic and complex nature of FMDV in this region of Africa. Sustained surveillance is needed to understand the origin, the extent and distribution of this novel SAT1 topotype in the region as well as to detect and monitor the occurrence of (re-)emerging FMDV strains.

Aims: To examine the dog ecology and management as it relates to the control of rabies in Niger State, Nigeria. Study Design: Questionnaire based survey. Place and Duration of Study: Structured questionnaires on dog ecology and management were administered in Niger State of Nigeria between January and March 2012. Methodology: Structured questionnaires on dog ecology and management comprising of 4 sections, were administered to 300 adult participants between the ages of 18-70 years using systematic randomization; 237 questionnaires were returned. Descriptive statistics using the SAS statistical package were employed to analyze the data. Results: Results indicated that there was a population ratio of 1:5.4 dogs to humans and 1:1.9 female to male dog ratio with an estimated 732,476 dog population in Niger State. Most of the dogs (58.6%) in the state were kept for security reasons and that majority of the dogs strayed at night (52.4%) and evenings (23.8%) into homes across the state. About 52% of dogs were not confined and responsibility for dogs in terms of welfare, mostly (61.5%) lied on everybody in the family and 61% of dogs were fed on family left overs. About 30.4% of dogs were never vaccinated and 31% of the respondents (or their family members) have been inflicted with a dog bite, but only 28.1% of cases received post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). For those humans that were bitten, about 13.8% resulted in death. Conclusion: Due to free roaming and irregular vaccination of dogs in the state; there is bound to be increased dog bite cases/rabies spread. This study concludes that dogs were not catered for as expected in the state and that employment of dog ecological studies before any rabies control programmes, will explore necessary data for planning the programme in Niger State of Nigeria. Improvement and employment of dog ecological studies across states for rabies control programmes in Nigeria and W/Africa is hereby recommended.

A study was conducted to elucidate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in birds in Zaria, Nigeria. A total of 890 faecal samples comprising 132, 305 and 453 from wild, local and exotic birds respectively from different parts of Zaria were examined using the formol-ether concentration technique with safranin–methylene blue stain and auramine phenol stain using light microscopy and fluorescent microscopy respectively. The total prevalence rate was 7.4%. However, Samaru had the highest prevalence rate of 20.6% and Tudun Wada the lowest rate of 2.8%. The difference in the prevalence rates between the different localities of Zaria was found to be statistically significant (P0.05). In Tudun Wada, where the different sexes were noted, there was no significant statistical difference (P>0.05) in the prevalence rate between male and female birds and none between the different species of wild birds sampled (P>0.05). This study confirms the presence of avian Cryptosporidium in Zaria, Nigeria and indicates that whereas location may influence infection, breed, sex and species of birds may not be significant factors in the epidemiology of the infection.

Recently reports have emerged of rabies outbreaks in townships close to the city of Lokoja, the capital city of Kogi State in Nigeria. Areas in Lokoja are known to have high rates of dog bites and dogs are frequently butchered for human consumption, both of which may constitute risk factors for rabies transmission. However, data on the relative importance of these factors on canine rabies exposure in the densely populated capital of Kogi State is scarce. To understand the risk for public health two separate observational cross-sectional studies were conducted in Lokoja. Firstly, a retrospective study was performed to investigate the human profile of dog bite injuries and quantify the vaccination coverage of offending dogs. Information on dog bite cases and vaccination records covering of 11 years (2003−2013) were obtained from the largest public veterinary clinic (i.e. State Veterinary Clinic) and a private veterinary clinic in Lokoja. Then, an investigation of the presence of rabies antigen in the brain tissues of dogs slaughtered for human consumption in Lokoja was performed. A total of 208 canine brain samples from five slaughter points within the army barracks (the main venue in Lokoja where dogs are slaughtered for human consumption) were examined by fluorescent antibody technique. Out of 95 human dog bite cases, 46 (48.4%) were in persons between 10 and 19 years of age and 57 (60%) were males. There was a statistically significant association between gender of victims and their age, with a greater proportion of bites in males

Henipavirus is an emerging, zoonotic, and lethal RNA virus comprising Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV), to which fruit bats are reservoir. Husbandry practices in Nigeria allow close contact between bat reservoir and animals susceptible to Henipavirus. This cross-sectional survey investigated antibodies reactive to Henipavirus sG antigen and associated risk factors in horses and pigs in Zaria, Nigeria. Using convenience sampling, 510 sera from horses (n=200) and pigs (n=310) were screened by an indirect Henipavirus enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (CSIRO, Australia). Structured questionnaires were employed with questions on the demographics and management of the animals. Data were analysed using SPSS-17. 5. Seroprevalence was higher for horses managed intensively (21.1%); used for sports (25.5%); watered with pipe borne water (17.9%); fed commercial feed (22.3%); and fed in the pen (17.6%). Seroprevalence was higher for pigs managed intensively (58.1%); imported (69.5%); watered with pipe-borne water (31.3%); fed commercial feed (57.4%); fed in the pen (23.4%), and fed with feed prestored in a feed house (49.5%). Horses P<0.05). There is a suggestive evidence of Henipavirus in horses and pigs in Zaria, Nigeria, with a huge public health implication. Local and exotic pigs and horses, pigs in Zaria and Sabon-Gari, and horses in Zaria, Sabon-Gari, and Kaduna North are associated with the seroprevalence of henipaviruses.

Formal systems of inquiry are of limited value when working with rural communities in developing countries. The current research used alternative systems of inquiry and learning that involved applying participatory epidemiology (PE) techniques to collect veterinary information about Newcastle disease (ND) in rural areas. Results indicated that poultry constituted the largest proportion (42.4%) of livestock species kept, and the poultry diseases that local farmers callbingiri, ciwon-sufe,dankanoman-kaji, dangari, andgurdumu are consistent with modern veterinary knowledge of Newcastle disease, respiratory disease, coccidiosis, fowl pox, and ectoparasitism, respectively.Tsuwen zaki (lion's testicle;Cucumuis pustulatus) andgarafuni (balsam pear;Momordica balsamina) are traditional remedies used to prevent Newcastle disease. Local farmers are knowledgeable about common disease that affect their poultry; they have good diagnostic abilities and can recognize clinical signs. There should be improved veterinary outreach to share some of this information via active community participation, and PE should be incorporated into state and national disease surveillance systems.

Objective To determine the vaccination status of owned dogs, assess the rabies antibody titre of vaccinated dogs and risk factors associated with vaccination of dogs in Abuja, Nigeria. Introduction Rabies is a zoonotic disease of high public health importance 1 . There have been documented reports of rabies in vaccinated dogs 2 . Rabies is enzootic in domestic dogs in Nigeria. Hence, annual vaccination campaigns of dogs are advocated with the aim of rabies elimination. Vaccination status, type of vaccination and the immunogenicity of the various rabies vaccines used in Abuja Nigeria has not been studied. To date, no effective medical therapy has been established for rabies 3 . Most human rabies deaths occur in the developing countries and though effective and economical control measures are available their application in developing countries is hampered by a range of economic, social and political factors. It is widely recognized that the number of deaths officially reported in most developing countries greatly underestimates the true incidence of disease, with several factors contributing to widespread underreporting 3 . Preventive vaccination against rabies virus is a highly effective method for preventing rabies in humans and animals 3 but do people vaccinate and how long does the immunity conferred by the vaccine remain protective in the dogs in Abuja?. Rabies has high financial expenditure burden on any country where it is endemic mainly associated with costs incurred on post-exposure prophylaxis (determined by the type of vaccine, vaccine regimen and route of administration as well as the type of immunoglobulin used). Methods Dog serum samples (n=276) were collected from Abuja the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Nigeria, from 5 locations (Phase 1, 2, 3, Gwagwalada and Kubwa) based on availability and owners consent. Rabies antibody serum titer was determined using an indirect enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay. Face to face structured questionnaires were used to obtain demographic and zoographic information from the dog owners. Associations between the demographic variables, vaccination status and rabies antibody titer of each dog were assessed using χ 2 analysis. Results Of the dogs sampled, 229 (83%) had certified antirabies vaccination record. The dogs sampled, which were vaccinated from Phase I, II, III and the satellite towns were; 109/118 (92.37%), 32/33 (96.97%), 48/49 (97.96%) and 40/76 (52.63%), respectively. A total of 276 serum samples were collected, processed and analyzed during this study. Out of the 276 dogs sampled, 239 (86.6%) had rabies antibody titre ≥ 0.6EU/ml whilst 37 (13.4%) had less than 0.6EU/ml. There was a marked decline in rabies antibody titre with increase in time. Out of the 228 exotic breeds of dogs sampled, 218 (95.6%) were vaccinated whilst 11 (22.9%) of the 48indigenous breed of dogs sampled were vaccinated. All the exotic breed of dogs had rabies antibody titre ≥ 0.6EU/ml whilst 37 (77.1%) of the indigenous breed of dogs had less than 0.6 EU/ml levels of rabies antibody titre. All dogs within 6 months to 1 year and greater than 10 years of age had ≥ 0.6EU/ml rabies antibody titre whilst dogs within 1-5 years had 1 (0.5%) and 36(69.2%) dogs of age 6-10 years had rabies antibody titre < 0.6EU/ml. Twelve (7.6%) of the males and 25 (21.2%) of the females had less than 0.6EU/ml rabies antibody titre. All the dogs acquired by importation and from breeders had rabies antibody titre ≥ 0.6EU/ml whilst 37 (27.2%) of the dogs acquired from friends had less than 0.6EU/ml rabies antibody titre. Significant associations were observed between breed ( χ 2 = 203, df = 1, P-value < 0.05), age ( χ 2 = 172, df = 3, P-value < 0.05), sex ( χ 2 = 10.75, df = 1, P-value < 0.05), source ( χ 2 = 43.99, df = 2, P-value < 0.05), rabies vaccination status ( χ 2 = 276.00, df = 2, P-value < 0.05) and the rabies antibody prevalence of sampled dogs. Conclusions This cross-sectional study shows that not all dog owners vaccinate their dogs and that the vaccines conferred protection beyond 12 months. The Preventive vaccination against rabies virus is a highly effective method for preventing rabies in humans and animals. Policies to enhance mass mandatory annual vaccination to achieve 70% coverage should be implemented in order to eradicate rabies.

Commercial poultry farms (n° 523), located in all the six regions of Nigeria were sampled with a view to generate baseline information about the distribution of Salmonella serovars in this country. Five different matrices (litter, dust, faeces, feed and water) were collected from each visited farm. Salmonella was isolated from at least one of the five matrices in 228 farms, with a farm prevalence of 43.6% (CI95[39.7–48.3%]). Altogether, 370 of 2615 samples collected (14.1%, CI95[12.8; 15.5%]) contained Salmonella. Considering the number of positive farms and the number of positive samples, it was evident that for the majority of the sampled farms, few samples were positive for Salmonella. With regard to the matrices, there was no difference in Salmonella prevalence among the five matrices considered. Of the 370 isolates serotyped, eighty-two different serotypes were identified and Salmonella Kentucky was identified as having the highest isolation rate in all the matrices sampled (16.2%), followed by S. Poona and S. Elisabethville. S. Kentucky was distributed across the country, whereas the other less frequent serovars had a more circumscribed diffusion. This is one of few comprehensive studies on the occurrence and distribution of Salmonella in commercial chicken layer farms from all the six regions of Nigeria. The relatively high prevalence rate documented in this study may be attributed to the generally poor infrastructure and low biosecurity measures in controlling stray animals, rodents and humans. Data collected could be valuable for instituting effective intervention strategies for Salmonella control in Nigeria and also in other developing countries with a similar poultry industry structure, with the final aim of reducing Salmonella spread in animals and ultimately in humans.

Canine rabies is endemic and occurs throughout the year in all parts of Nigeria. A descriptive cross sectional study was designed to assess knowledge, attitude and practice of dog owners towards rabies, to check for the presence of rabies antigens in brain tissue of dogs slaughtered for human consumption and to assess rabies vaccination coverage of dogs in Wukari. Structured questionnaires were prepared and administered to 200 dog owners by face to face interview. The questionnaire sought information on demographic characteristics of the dog owners, their association with dogs, knowledge, attitude and practice of dog owners towards rabies. Associations between demographic variables and knowledge, attitude or practice scores were assessed using chi(2) analysis. Also, 188 brain samples from slaughtered dogs were analysed for presence of rabies antigen using direct fluorescent antibody test. Fifteen (7.89%) had rabies antigen. Record files and vaccination certificates of dogs presented to the State Veterinary Hospital Wukari were assessed for anti rabies vaccination coverage. Out of the 200 dog owners, only 26 (13%) knew that rabies virus can be found in nervous tissue, 121 (60.5%) were aware that rabies can be spread through the saliva of a rabid animal, but majority of respondents 172 (86%) did not know the age for first vaccination of dogs against rabies. Dog owners who were civil servants were 4.8 times more likely to have good knowledge (OR=4.84, 95% CI on OR 1.09-21.44) than those of other occupation groups. Positive attitude towards rabies increased with increase in age of dog owners, with respondents within the age group 20-30 years more likely to have negative attitude than those over 40 years. Civil servants were 9.8 times more likely to have good practice than other occupation groups. Rabies antigen was detected in 7.98% of slaughtered dogs. Out of 8370 dogs presented to the hospital between January 2003 and December 2012, only 1128 (13.50%) received anti rabies vaccine. Inadequate knowledge of some aspects of rabies, negative attitude and practice of dog owners towards rabies, the presence of rabies antigen in some dogs slaughtered for human consumption and low vaccination coverage in dogs are indicative of high risk of exposure of dog owners and dog meat processors to rabies. There is therefore a need for educational programmes targeted at dog owners to increase their level of knowledge and reduce the risk of exposure to rabies.

Dog ecology is essential in understanding the distribution, structure, and population density of dogs and pattern of dog ownership in any given area. A cross-sectional study was designed to study dog ecology in Aba, Abia state, Nigeria, from April to June 2013. The study revealed that the 500 households surveyed possessed 5,823 individuals and 747 dogs, giving a dog to human ratio of 1 : 7.8; hence dog population in Aba was estimated to be 68,121. About 495/747 (66.3%) of the dogs were exotic and 465/747 (62.2%) were males. A total of 319/500 (63.8%) of the households had fences that restrained dog movement and there was no incidence of dog bite in 447/500 (89.4%) of the households surveyed. There were statistical associations between vaccination against antirabies and breeds of dogs (χ2=79.8, df=2, P<0.005). Exotic breed (adjusted OR=0.39; CI=0.23–0.65) and local breed of dogs (adjusted OR=0.08; CI=0.04–0.14) had less odds of being vaccinated as compared to crossbreed of dogs. About 126 dogs (2.5 dogs per street) were estimated from street counts survey. The relative high dog to human ratio and low vaccination coverage of owned dogs population pose public health concerns requiring adequate public health education and proper antirabies vaccination coverage of dogs in the study area.

A study to identify gaps in the management practices given to village chickens was conducted using a structured questionnaire administered on 72 farmers drawn from eight communities in Bauchi State, Nigeria for the purpose of obtaining information that could be used to improve the productivity of these chickens in the State. The demography of the respondents revealed that most of them were farmers 47/72 (65.3%) married 71/72 (98.6%), females 40/72 (55.6%) and over 20 years (77.8%) of age; many of them had received some formal education 37/72 (54.5%) and had kept village chickens for over 5 years 55/72 (77.8%). Income generation was the main reason why respondents reared village chickens 33/72 (45.8%). Breeding stock were mostly bought from the market 48/72 (66.7%) and reared under an extensive system of production 72/72 (100%) together with other rural poultry 41/72 (56.9%); with birds receiving feed supplementation 68/72 (94.4%) and water 72/72 (100%); and kept at night in some locally made housing 37/72 (51.4%). Respondent do not vaccinate chickens against diseases like Newcastle disease (ND) nor keep any production record 72/72 (100%). Poor biosecurity practices like permitting chickens to intermingle with those from other households 72 (100%); sales of sick chickens (80.6%); consumption of sick chickens and the disposal of its inedible parts on the garbage that is accessible to chickens from other households are common. The results seem to suggest the need for farmers to improve upon the existing management practices especially with regards to vaccination, record keeping, housing and biosecurity measures in order to increase the productivity of these chickens in Bauchi State. Key words : Village chickens, management practices, biosecurity, vaccination, Bauchi State, Nigeria

The objective of this study was to conduct a cross sectional study to assess the occurrence of mastitis and Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in goats in Zaria, Kaduna State from May to July 2013. A total of 386 fresh goat milk samples from both right and left halves of 198 lactating goats from National Animal Production and Research Institute (NAPRI) and other locations within Zaria metropolis were examined for the occurrence of mastitis and MRSA. The observed prevalence of mastitis in goats, defined by positive (≥+1) California Mastitis Test (CMT) was 119 (60.1%). The prevalence of mastitis showed significant variation among goats of different breeds (p=0.048) but no significant variation between age groups (p=0.890), location and goats raised under the two different systems of management (p=0.438). Also, there was no significant difference as to which udder half was most sub clinically affected (left or right). From a total of 386 fresh goat milk samples examined, 60 strains of staphylococci were isolated and identified using the conventional biochemical tests and 32 of which were identified as Staphylococcus aureus using the Microgen TM STAPH-ID system. Furthermore, 12 of these 32 showed agglutinations with the PBP-2a Latex agglutination test reagent. The susceptibilities of the isolates to 14 antimicrobial agents were evaluated using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method and interpreted as sensitive, intermediate or resistant following the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2017). Out of the 32 isolates of S. aureus ; 90.63% were resistant to cefoxitin, Penicillin G (93.75%), Ampicillin (100%), Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (34.38%), Ceftriaxone (71.88%), Vancomycin (31.25%), Gentamicin (31.25%), Kanamycin (46.88%), Erythromycin (43.75%), Tetracycline (40.63%), Ciprofloxacin (3.13%), Nitrofurantoin (15.63%), Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (25%) and Chloramphenicol (15.63%). All the isolates were resistant 2 or more antimicrobial agents, but none was simultaneously resistant to all. There were 28 antimicrobial resistant patterns in which resistance to Ampicillin, Penicillin G, Cefoxitin were the most frequent. Methicillin resistance was determined using Cefoxitin discs as a surrogate marker of mecA gene as recommended by Clinical Laboratory Standards International (CLSI). In conclusion, the findings of this study confirm the importance of S. aureus as a mastitis causing organism and the possible role of goats in the transmission of multiple drug resistant S. aureus . Keywords: mastitis, methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus , goats, Zaria

Newcastle disease constitutes a major constraint to rural poultry production system in Nigeria. This study used serological method to estimate the level of circulating antibodies against ND in nonvaccinated village chickens, raised under traditional management system in Zamfara State, Nigeria. Competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay was used to analyze 504 chicken sera for Newcastle disease virus antibodies from randomly selected households and live bird markets. Higher seroprevalence rate of Newcastle disease virus antibodies was detected in both household and live bird markets. Overall, seropositive rate was found to be 32.5% (164/504). About 35.8% (115/321) sero-positive rate was obtained from live bird markets while 26.8% (49/183) seropositive rate was found in households. Comparison was made between the sero prevalence of house hold and live bird markets as well as between sexes. Live bird markets show a statistically significant higher prevalence rate (P<0.05) when compared with chickens sampled from households (OR 1.53; 95% CI, 1.024–2.275). The prevalence of ND indicated the presence of the virus amongst the population, and hence there should be an improvement in the vaccine campaign against ND for rural poultry especially the use of thermostable vaccine to reduce the chances of vaccine failure.

Coxiellosis (Q fever) is a zoonosis of public health significance. This study was aimed at determining the seroprevalence and the risk factors associated with Coxiella burnetti infection in cattle in Kaduna metropolis, Nigeria. A total of 539 blood samples from 42 cattle farms in the four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna metropolis were tested using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in addition to application of structured questionnaires on the farmers. The total prevalence rate and herd prevalence rates obtained were 78 (14.5%) and 24 (57.1%) respectively. The sex based prevalence rates showed no significant difference between females(14.5%) and males(14.1%). Age of cattle was not significantly associated with infection (OR= 1.13, 95% CI, 0.69-1.86). Prevalence was significantly higher in the local breed of cattle (17.1%) than cross breed (1.3%) (P

The study was conducted to assess the level of fungal contamination of poultry houses with emphasis on Aspergillus species contamination of litter, feeders, drinkers and the housing materials. Ten swabs each from ten locations and materials (100) of the 10 poultry houses were collected for fungal isolation. A total of 126 fungi belonging to 5 genera were isolated from the different parts of the poultry environment viz; Aspergillus, Mucor, Candida, Rhizopusand Penecillium species with Aspergillus and Candida species having the highest frequency of isolation, 69 (54.76%) and 27 (20.93%) respectively. Three species of Aspergillus were isolated A. fumigatus (22), A. flavus (22) and A. niger (18). Fungi were isolated from all parts of the poultry sampled with a higher rate of isolation from the doors, window nets, roof and feeders. The presence of Aspergillus and Candida species which are important poultry pathogens i.e causing Aspergillosis, mycotoxicosis and Candidaisis indicates an economic threat the farmers as well as to the health of the bird.

The epidemiological situation of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is uncertain in Nigeria, where the disease is endemic, and the majority of outbreaks are unreported. Control measures for FMD in Nigeria are not being implemented due to the absence of locally produced vaccines and an official ban on vaccine importation. This study summarizes the findings of a 3-year study aimed at quantifying the seroprevalence of FMD, its distribution in susceptible species and the genetic diversity of FMDV isolated from the Plateau State of Nigeria. A 29% FMD prevalence was estimated using 3ABC enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (3ABC ELISA). Farms with suspected FMD nearby, with contact with wildlife, that used drugs or FMD vaccines or with100 animals, and animals of large ruminant species and in pastures other than nomadic grazing were significantly (P 0.05) associated with FMD. Antibodies against five FMDV serotypes, (A, O, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) were detected by the virus neutralization test (VNT) at various titres (100-800) from all tested sera from most parts of the region. This is probably the first report of the presence of FMDV SAT3 in Nigeria. Further studies to investigate the potential probable presence and prevalence of SAT 3 virus in Nigeria are required. Tissue samples collected from clinical animals were positive for FMDV. Virus isolates were sequenced and confirmed as serotype A. All of the isolates showed marked genetic homogeneity with99% genetic identity in the VP1 region and were most closely related to a previously described virus collected from Cameroon in 2000. This study provides knowledge on the epidemiological situation of FMD in Plateau State, Nigeria, and will probably help to develop effective control and preventive strategies for the disease in Nigeria and other countries in the West African subregion.

Summary Control measures for foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Nigeria have not been implemented due to the absence of locally produced vaccines and risk-based analysis resulting from insufficient data on the circulating FMD virus (FMDV) serotypes/strains. In 2013-2015, blood and epithelial samples were collected from reported FMD outbreaks in four states (Kaduna, Kwara, Plateau and Bauchi) in northern Nigeria. FMDV non-structural protein (NSP) seroprevalence for the outbreaks was estimated at 80% (72 of 90) and 70% (131 of 188) post-outbreak. Antibodies against FMDV serotypes O, A, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3 were detected across the states using solid-phase competitive ELISA. FMDV genome was detected in 99% (73 of 74) of the samples from FMD-affected animals using rRT-PCR, and cytopathic effect was found in cell culture by 59% (44 of 74) of these samples. Three FMDV serotypes O, A and SAT2 were isolated and characterized. The phylogenetic assessments of the virus isolates showed that two topotypes of FMDV serotype O, East Africa-3 (EA-3) and West Africa (WA) topotypes were circulating, as well as FMDV strains belonging to the Africa genotype (G-IV) of serotype A and FMDV SAT2 topotype VII strains. While the serotype O (EA-3) strains from Nigeria were most closely related to a 1999 virus strain from Sudan, the WA strain in Nigeria shares genetic relationship with three 1988 viruses in Niger. The FMDV serotype A strains were closely related to a known virus from Cameroon, and the SAT2 strains were most closely related to virus subtypes in Libya. This study provides evidence of co-occurrence of FMDV serotypes and topotypes in West, Central, East and North Africa, and this has implication for control. The findings help filling the knowledge gap of FMDV dynamics in Nigeria and West Africa subregion to support local and regional development of vaccination-based control plans and international risk assessment.

Nigeria has recently been ranked third among the 10 countries with the greatest number of rotavirus disease-associated deaths per year. Estimates attribute up to 33,000 deaths annually to rotavirus disease in Nigerian children5 years old. Although the introduction of the new oral, live attenuated rotavirus vaccines may not occur for another 4-6 years in developing countries, background data on burden of disease, cost of rotavirus disease, and characterization of circulating strains is required to hasten this introduction to children who would clearly benefit from the intervention.Between July 2002 and July 2004, fecal specimens were collected from 869 infants and young children5 years of age presenting with diarrhea in Kaduna, Kebbi, Sokoto, and Zamfara states in northwestern Nigeria. In addition, 194 control specimens were also collected from children matched for age. Specimens were screened for the presence of rotavirus antigens. Rotavirus-positive specimens were further analyzed to determine electropherotype, subgroup specificity, and G and P genotypes.Rotavirus was detected in 18% of children with diarrhea and 7.2% of the age-matched case control subjects. The highest rotavirus burden was detected in children aged6 months. The majority of the rotavirus-positive specimens revealed viruses of long electropherotypes, subgroup II specificity, and G1P[8] genotypes. Furthermore, more than a quarter of specimens (37%) displayed mixed G and P genotypes, and almost a third could not be genotyped.The high numbers of mixed rotavirus infections highlight the multitude of enteric pathogens to which children in African countries are exposed. Data on circulating rotavirus strains serve to inform African government officials to the serious health threat posed by rotavirus in their respective countries and to document the diversity of strains before vaccine introduction.

To have a better understanding of the prevalence of rabies virus (RABV) in the dog trading markets in Plateau State of Nigeria, a total of 532 brain samples collected between 2010 and 2011 were subjected to rabies virus antigen detection and molecular characterization. RABV antigen was detected in 92 out of 532 (17.3%) brain samples from two major commercial dog markets in Plateau State of Nigeria by direct fluorescence antibody assay, indicating the possibility of a high prevalence of RABV in the dog trading markets. The complete genomic sequence was obtained from one of these RABV positive samples. The overall organization of this virus (DRV-NG11) was typical of all the other wild-type RABV. Phylogenetic analysis using either the complete or partial genomic sequence of DRV-NG11 demonstrates that this isolate is most closely related to viruses previously shown to circulate in Nigeria, belonging to the Africa 2 Clade. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the molecular characterization of the complete genome of RABV from trade dogs, which provides a better understanding of the molecular epidemiology, pathogenesis and rabies control in this country.Keywords: Genome, Nigeria, Rabies virus, Street strain, Trade dogs

During lyssavirus surveillance, 350 brains from four species of fruit bats and one species of insectivorous bat were collected from seven locations in Northern Nigeria during May to October, 2006. Lyssavirus antigen was not detected in the brains, and isolation attempts in mice were unsuccessful. However, serologic tests demonstrated the presence of lyssavirus-neutralizing antibodies in bat sera. Of 140 sera tested, 27 (19%) neutralized Lagos bat virus, and two of these additionally neutralized Mokola virus. The positive samples originated from the straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) and the Gambian epaulet bat (Epomophorus gambianus). No neutralizing activity was detected against other lyssaviruses including rabies, Duvenhage, and West Caucasian bat viruses.

A study on seroprevalence, seasonal occurrence and clinical manifestation of Newcastle Disease Virus (ND) among rural household chickens and Live Birds Markets (LBM) was conducted using haemagglutination Inhibition Test (HI) and questionnaires. A total of 1, 208 chickens reared under extensive management system in four Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Plateau State were used for the study. The seroprevalence of ND virus antibodies in rural chickens showed that there was no statistically significant (p > 0.05) difference among the four LGAs and of the 1,208 sera tested, 51.9% had detectable antibodies to NDV but only 14.1% of the chickens had HI antibody titre of > 4log which was considered as protective. 2 About 86.2% of the chickens sampled were at risk of suffering from clinical ND. Newcastle disease outbreaks occurred year round in the villages sampled with the highest incidence of 86.6% observed from November to March (Dry season) and September to October, 8.31% (Pre-dry season). During outbreaks of ND, infected birds exhibit the following major clinical signs; nervous signs (32.4%), weakness (16.6%), whitish/greenish diarrhea (16.2%), coughing/sneezing 13.6%, anorexia 9.39% and others 11.8%. It was concluded that the prevalence of ND in the four LGAs of Plateau State is high. At the time of the study over 80% of rural chickens in Plateau State were at risk of dying from ND when exposed to a virulent NDV. It is therefore recommended that vaccination and improved management practices as a means of prevention against ND before the period of outbreaks should be instituted.

The global effort of malaria control is in line with the one world one health concept, but then a globally defined (one-size-fits-all) malaria control strategy would be inefficient. A model was used to examine the likely impact of malaria parasite interventions for a steady state regional control program in endemic areas. Assumptions varied about two targeted epidemiologic control points on the basic reproductive number, Ro, which is affected by different factors and upon which the status of malaria in any community will depend. For any effective malaria control and eradication program, environmental and socio-economic factors should also be considered.

One hundred and twenty six (9.4%) of 1335 pneumonic lung samples of sheep collected over a 4-year period were positive for Pasteurella multocida. Four, 6 months old conventionally reared lambs free of antibodies against P. multocida were intratracheally inoculated with P. multocida biovar A, serovar 3 (A:3). Three of four infected lambs had typical pneumonic pasteurellosis characterized clinically by anorexia, coughing, nasal discharge, dullness, but none was found to be fevered, with one lamb becoming recumbent and dying on day 6 post-infection. At necropsy, three lambs had swollen and congested lungs, which were associated with profuse growth of P. multocida, and little fibrin exudation typical of subacute bronchopneumonia. Histologically, there were marked thickening of the interalveolar septa with congested capillaries and no necrosis. Most alveoli were filled with mainly macrophages, oedema fluid and little fibrin. These results imply that although P. multocida infection of the respiratory tract of lambs produces less fulminating form of pneumonic pasteurellosis, it nonetheless contributes to the incidence of the disease in the field.

The occurrence of veterinary drug residues in poultry products in Kaduna state was determined. Information on drug use was obtained from ten layer flocks weekly for 10 weeks. Two hundred commercial eggs, and 378 slaughtered chicken faeces were examined for antibacterial drug residues using a disc diffusion microbial inhibition test with Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, and Micrococcus luteus ATCC 9341 respectively. All 10 farms used a drug at least once, nine used antibacterial drugs for either prophylaxis, therapy or both. None of the farms observed drug withdrawal period. Two eggs (1%) and 82 (21.8%) of the chicken faeces were positive. Broilers had a significantly higher incidence (33.1%) for antibacterial substances at slaughter (χ2,P

The capsular serotypes of Pasteurella haemolytica (Ph) isolates from pneumonic lungs of slaughtered sheep were determined. A total of 1335 sheep pneumonic lung samples were collected at slaughter and investigated bacteriologically for P. haemolytica isolates. The rapid plate agglutination test was used for serotyping 338 isolates of the P. haemolytica recovered from 25.3% of the total pneumonic lung samples. The study showed the presence of eight established P. haemolytica serotypes, and their relative frequencies of isolation were: A1 (5.3%), A2 (36.1%), A6 (12.1%), A7 (5.9%), A8 (3.6%), A9 (1.8%), T10 (0.3%), and A11 (13.6%), with 21.3% representing untypable P. haemolytica strains. The most frequently recovered serotype was A2. The identification of P. haemolytica by serotype, is invaluable as it underpins the formulation of an effective bacterin-based vaccine cocktail for sheep in the target area.

Astrovirus has been shown to be an important aetiological agent associated with gastroenteritis in children, although few studies have been conducted in Africa. In this study, stool specimens were obtained from 375 young children less than 5 years of age with acute gastroenteritis presenting at Ahmadu Bello University Hospital, and from a control group of 122 children without diarrhoeal illness. The specimens were examined for the presence of human astroviruses using a monoclonal antibody-based ELISA (Astrovirus IDEIATM, Dako, UK). Negative staining electron microscopy was performed on specimens to confirm the presence of astrovirus particles. Astrovirus was detected in 6.7 per cent (25/375) of the diarrhoeal stools compared to 5.7 per cent (7/122) of the control specimens. Astrovirus seemed to infect older children and more than half the children were between 1 and 4 years of age (15/25). Only four children were less than 6 months old. A winter peak of shedding was observed.

We report the first evidence of Shimoni bat virus (SHBV) and the detection of Lagos bat virus (LBV)and Mokola virus (MOKV) in bats from Nigeria. In total, 356 bats representing 7 genera and 8 species, collected in 8 locations of northern Nigeria. None of the 356 bat brains screened by direct fluorescent antibody (DFAT) test were positive for lyssavirus antigens. Of the 76 sera screened by modified rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) 24 (31.6%) had neutralizing activity; 22(29.0%) neutralized LBV, 6(7.9%) neutralized MOKV and 18(23.7%) neutralized SHBV). Lyssaviruses may be circulating in bats or other wild animals in Nigeria.

A survey of rotavirus infection in infants and young children with acute diarrhoea was undertaken in Zaria, northern Nigeria during 1997 and 1998. In total, 375 faecal specimens were collected from children aged between 1 and 60 months and 122 specimens from age-matched control children without diarrhoea. Fourteen specimens were collected from neonates in the University Teaching Hospital. Rotavirus antigen was detected in 61 diarrhoeal and four control specimens; four neonates were shedding rotavirus. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the viral genome showed the presence of five strains of rotavirus with long RNA electropherotypes and one short pattern. The rotavirus VP6 subgroup was determined by monoclonal antibodies specific ELISA and showed that subgroup II strains predominated (72 vs. 9.8 per cent), while eight strains could not be subgrouped and three did not react at all. Examination of the VP7 serotype showed G1 and G3 strains circulating at similar levels (29 and 25 per cent), but no serotype G2 nor G4 strains were identified. G1/G3 'mosaic' virus strains circulated commonly (10 per cent).

Dog population dynamics have a major impact upon the effectiveness of rabies control strategies. As such, understanding domestic dog ecology has been recognized as central to the design of effective rabies control programmes. This study was conducted to determine the dog ecology in Lagos State using compound dog count and street dog count in the three senatorial districts (Lagos West, East and Central) of Lagos State from February, 2011 to January, 2012. A total of 546 questionnaires were distributed for the compound dog count and all were completed and returned. Various aspects of dog ecology were determined, including size, sex, breed of the dog population, management of dogs and rabies awareness among the respondents. Out of the 546 compounds surveyed, 518 (94.87%) owned at least one dog. A total of 1,427 dogs were counted from the street counts while a total of 1,447 dogs (2.8 dogs/compound) were counted from the compound count. The dogs comprised of 583 males and 864 females, out of which 64.10% are confined. The dog vaccination coverage in the dog population surveyed was 64.10% and administered majorly (91.30%) by veterinarians. Security (60%) and pets (26%) were the major reasons for keeping dogs. Majority (88.80%) of the respondents were aware of rabies and its mode of transmission, but still believed in the use of concoctions (40.40%), herbs (19.90%) and consumption of the organ of the offending dog (11.50%) for the treatment of rabies. The findings of this study showed a male: female ratio of dog to be 1:1.5 and a dog: human ratio of 1:5.6. There was also a responsible dog ownership as majority of the respondents do confine, vaccinate and provide food for their dogs. Vaccination coverage of the total dog population was however below the 70-80% target recommended by the World Health Organization to achieve herd immunity.

Canine rabies is endemic in Nigeria. Some of the dogs slaughtered for human consumption may be infected with rabies virus, thus exposing handlers of raw dog meat to the disease since the virus may be present in the nerves in the meat. A cross-sectional study was designed and a structured questionnaire was designed and administered to a convenience sample of 160 processors and consumers (100 from Zaria and 60 from Kafanchan), by face to face interview at the slaughter sites or dog meat sale points. The questionnaire sought information on demographic characteristics of the respondents, rabies knowledge, attitude and actions the respondents would take if exposure occurs. Associations between demographic variables and categorized knowledge, attitude or practice scores were assessed using χ2 analysis. The relationship between non-categorized scores was assessed using multiple regression analysis. Also, 154 brain samples from slaughtered dogs (74 from Zaria and 80 from Kafanchan) were checked for rabies antigen using direct fluorescent antibody test. Of the 160 respondents, 49 (30.6%) were involved in the slaughtering and sale of dog meat while 111(69.4%) were involved in handling and consumption of processed dog meat. Only 123(76.9%) knew that dogs are common source of rabies in Nigeria and 105(65.6%) knew that rabies affect humans. Also 110(68.8%) did not have adequate knowledge of the clinical signs of rabies. The level of knowledge, having positive attitudes and knowing acceptable practices were directly proportional to the level of education. Respondents from Kafanchan had higher level of knowledge and more positive attitudes towards rabies than those from Zaria. There were significant correlations between knowledge and attitude scores (r=0.49) and between knowledge and practice scores (r=0.43) at p

This study was carried out to determine the prevalence of rabies antigen in brain of dogs slaughtered for consumption and those that died in veterinary clinics as well as to obtain a 6-year retrospective data on dog bites/suspected dog rabies cases in Lagos State. Dog brain samples were collected from dog slaughter slabs and veterinary clinics (for dogs that died in clinics) across the Lagos state while data for retrospective studies (2006-2011) of dog bite/suspected rabies cases were collected from public (government owned) and private veterinary clinics across the state. Out of the 444 brain samples collected and tested for presence of rabies antigen using the direct fluorescent antibody technique (DFAT) only 7 (1.58%) were positive for the rabies antigen. A total of 196 dog bites/suspected rabies cases were encountered between January 2006 and December, 2011 in the veterinary clinics with adults been the major (55.61%) victims. Majority (96.43%) of the offending dogs were not quarantined at the time of bite and only one out of the quarantined dogs died and was confirmed positive for rabies antigen. The result of this study indicates that rabies antigen is present among dogs slaughtered in Lagos State and may pose a threat to public health. Though, available records showed that provocation of dogs was the major cause of dog bites and both children and adults fell victim of dog bites, there was a poor record keeping practice in the veterinary clinics across the state.

A canine rabies virus (RABV) was isolated from a trade dog in Nigeria. Its entire genome was sequenced and found to be closely related to canine RABVs circulating in Africa. Sequence comparison indicates that the virus is closely related to the Africa 2 RABV lineage. The virus is now termed DRV-NG11.

The use of molecular diagnostic tools in epidemiological investigations of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Enterocytozoon has provided new insights into their diversity and transmission pathways. In this study, 157 stool specimens from 2-month to 70-year-old patients were collected, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene was used to detect and differentiate Cryptosporidium species, and DNA sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene was used to subtype Cryptosporidium hominis and Cryptosporidium parvum. Giardia duodenalis, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in the specimens were detected using PCR and sequence analysis of the triosephosphate isomerase (tpi) gene and internal transcribed spacer (ITS), respectively. C. hominis and C. parvum were found in two (1.3%) and one (0.6%) specimen respectively, comprising of Ia and IIe (with 8 nucleotide substitutions) subtype families. The G. duodenalis A2 subtype was detected in five (3.2%) specimens, while four genotypes of E. bieneusi, namely A, type IV, D and WL7 were found in 10 (6.4%) specimens. Children aged two years or younger had the highest occurrence of Cryptosporidium (4.4%) and Enterocytozoon (13.0%) while children of 6 to 17 years had the highest Giardia infection rate (40.0%). No Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Enterocytozoon were detected in patients older than 60 years. Enterocytozoon had high infection rates in both HIV-positive (3.3%) and HIV-negative (8.3%) patients. Results of the study suggest that anthroponotic transmission may be important in the transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis while zoonotic transmissions may also play a role in the transmission of E. bieneusi in humans in Kaduna State, Nigeria.