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Background and Aim: Toxoplasma gondii and Trypanosoma evansi , the zoonotic protozoa responsible for toxoplasmosis and trypanosomiasis, are significant threats to the productivity and financial stability of livestock farming. T. gondii can be transmitted horizontally through ingestion of fecal oocysts and T. evansi through arthropod vectors. In addition, both species can be transmitted from mother to fetus through the placenta. This study aimed to assess the molecular prevalence of T. gondii and T. evansi transplacental-transmitted protozoans and to identify the epidemiological risk factors in recently calved female cattle across Phayao, Thailand., Materials and Methods: We collected 106 bovine placentas from beef and dairy cow full-term pregnancies in Phayao, Thailand. T. gondii and T. evansi DNA were detected using targeted B1 gene and expression site-associated gene (ESAG) species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively., Results: Forty-three placentas were positive for T. gondii B1 PCR, whereas only one was positive for T. evansi ESAG PCR, resulting in an overall prevalence of transplacental-transmitted protozoan infection of 41.5% (44/106). The prevalence of T. gondii and T. evansi was 40.6% (43/106) and 0.9% (1/106), respectively. No significant correlation was found between T. gondii infection and various risk factors, including locality, age, and cattle type., Conclusion: The prevalence of transplacental-transmitted protozoan T. gondii infection was high among female cattle in Phayao, Thailand, whereas the prevalence of T. evansi infection was notably lower. Although the conventional modes of transmission differ between these two parasites, the transplacental transmission of T. evansi and especially T. gondii may play a crucial role in the persistence of these protozoan species in this area., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Klinbumrung, et al.)

Background and Aim: Freshwater snails belonging to the family Planorbidae serve as the first intermediate hosts of many species of important parasitic flukes of animals and humans. Information regarding the occurrence of planorbid snail larval trematode infection is limited in Northern Thailand. Thus, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of larval trematode infection of the freshwater snail Indoplanorbis exustus in Uttaradit, Thailand, and to identify trematode species based on their morphological and molecular characteristics., Materials and Methods: Planorbid snail specimens were collected from a water reservoir in Uttaradit, Thailand, from June to August 2023. Snails were assessed for larval trematode infection through cercarial shedding and crushing methods. The released cercariae were preliminarily identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics. In addition, species identification of the detected cercariae was conducted using 28S ribosomal RNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene sequence analyses., Results: The overall prevalence of cercarial infection was 61.5% (107/174) in planorbid snails in Uttaradit province. Two species of cercarial trematodes, Schistosoma spindale (106/174, 60.9%) and Artyfechinostomum malayanum (1/174, 0.6%), were identified using morphological and molecular analyses, of which S. spindale was the most abundant species. Our studied snails did not have mixed infection with more than two cercarial species., Conclusion: Our findings reveal a remarkably high prevalence of S. spindale cercariae infecting planorbid snails in Uttaradit, indicating that humans and animals across the study area are at risk of infection. Our data may contribute to the development of effective strategies to control this zoonotic infectious disease., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Phuangsri and Japa.)

Lymnaeids are aquatic snails playing an important role in the transmission of many parasitic trematode species of veterinary and medical importance. In this study, we assessed the presence of cercarial flukes in naturally infected lymnaeid snails from Phayao province, Thailand, and determined the species diversity of both the intermediate snail hosts and parasite larvae. A total of 3,185 lymnaeid snails were collected from paddy fields at 31 sites in eight districts of Phayao province between October 2021 and December 2022. Larval fluke infection was assessed using the cercarial shedding method. The collected snails as well as emerging cercariae were identified at the species level via morphological and molecular methods. The sequences of snail internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) and cercarial 28S ribosomal RNA gene (28S rDNA) and cytochrome C oxidase1 (Cox1) were determined by PCR amplification and sequencing. Three species of lymnaeid snails were detected in this study, including Radix (Lymnaea) rubiginosa (Michelin, 1831), Radix (Lymnaea) swinhoei (Adams, 1866) and Austropeplea viridis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1832), of which R. rubiginosa was the most abundant, followed by A. viridis and R. swinhoei. The overall rate of trematode cercarial infection in the lymnaeid snails was 2.8% (90/3,185); the cercarial infection rate in R. rubiginosa and A. viridis was 3.5% (60/1,735) and 3.1% (30/981), respectively. No larval fluke infection was observed in the studied R. swinhoei (0/469). Nine morphotypes of cercariae were detected at 15 sites from four districts. The emerging cercariae were molecularly identified as Clinostomum sp., Aporocotylidae sp., Apharyngostrigea sp., Trichobilharzia sp., Apatemon sp., Pegosomum sp., Petasiger sp., Echinostoma revolutum and Plagiorchis sp. These findings emphasize the occurrence and diversity of trematode cercariae among naturally infected lymnaeid snails in Phayao province and could contribute to broadening our understanding of the host-parasite relationships between trematodes and their first intermediate hosts as well as developing effective interventions to control trematode parasitic diseases., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Liver flukes, Fasciola spp., are veterinary and medically important parasites infecting numerous species of economically important animals in addition to humans on a global scale. The components of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signalling are widely distributed throughout the animal kingdom and are considerably conserved. Through shared common signal transduction mechanisms, crosstalk of TGF-β signalling between a host and the parasite during infection is possible. Herein, we have identified and undertaken the molecular characterisation of a putative TGF-β homologue from the tropical liver fluke F. gigantica (FgTLM). A FgTLM cDNA was 3557 bp in length, it encoded for 620 amino acid polypeptide which consisted of 494 amino acids of prodomain and 126 amino acids comprising the mature protein. FgTLM displayed characteristic structures of mammalian TGF-β ligands that were unique to the inhibin-β chain, monomer of activin. A phylogenetic analysis revealed the high degree of conservation with TGF-β molecules from trematode species. Interestingly, the sequence of amino acid in the active domain of FgTLM was completely identical to FhTLM from F. hepatica. FgTLM expressed throughout the lifecycle of F. gigantica but was highly expressed in developmental active stages. The dynamics of expression of FgTLM during the developmental stages of F. gigantica was comparable to the pattern of TGF-β expression in F. hepatica. Our findings demonstrated that FgTLM exhibits a high level of similarity to FhTLM in the context of both amino acid sequence and the life stage expression patterns. These similarities underline the possibility that the FgTLM molecule might have the same properties and functions as FhTLM in biological processes of the immature parasites and host immune evasion. Consequently, the specific biological functions of FgTLM on either parasite or relevant hosts need to be defined experimentally., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Background and Aim: Globally, toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic parasite infection of many warm-blooded animals (including humans). Toxoplasma gondii oocysts are widespread, and their contamination can be primarily attributed to the members of the Felidae family. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and determine the dense granule antigen 6 (GRA6) genotype of T. gondii among domestic cats in the Phayao Province, Thailand., Materials and Methods: A total of 124 fecal samples were collected from owned cats in the Muang district, Phayao, Thailand, from January to December 2020. Fecal samples were tested for the presence of T. gondii DNA using targeted B1 gene polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, and positive samples were subsequently analyzed for their T. gondii genotype through PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and sequencing of the GRA6 gene., Results: Among the 124 samples, 46 (37.1%) were tested positive for T. gondii . Only 10 positive DNA samples were successfully amplified for the GRA6 marker. Subsequent PCR-RFLP and sequence analyses indicated that all T. gondii isolates from cats in Phayao belonged to GRA6 genotype I., Conclusion: Data revealed that toxoplasmosis is remarkably distributed among (studied) domestic cats in Phayao, Thailand. Moreover, the virulent GRA6 allele was found to be circulated among domestic cats in this area. However, no significant correlation was observed between infection rates and different risk factors, which indicated that pet cats of any age, gender, or breed have similar risks of being infected with T. gondii . Our results further suggested that infective oocysts of T. gondii are widely distributed and that environmental contamination with these oocysts will introduce more risks of disease transmission to humans and other animals., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Suwancharoen, et al.)

Background and Aim: Cercarial dermatitis or swimmer's itch is an allergic skin reaction caused by penetrating cercaria of animal blood flukes. It is considered as a zoonotic water-borne skin condition that is found globally. Among the schistosomatid trematodes, avian schistosomes are the most responsible for cercarial dermatitis. Very little is known regarding the occurrence of dermatitis-causing cercariae in Thailand. Therefore, the objective of this study was to preliminarily investigate the presence of larval blood fluke infection among local lymnaeidae snails in Phayao by the incorporation of morphological and molecular methods., Materials and Methods: Overall 500 Radix ( Lymnaea ) rubiginosa (Michelin, 1831) were collected from freshwater reservoirs near Phayao Lake in San Kwan village in Phayao, Thailand, from October to December 2020. The snails were examined for avian blood fluke infection by the cercarial shedding technique followed by morphological and molecular characterization., Results: Only one type of furcocercous cercaria was observed to emerge from six infected snails (1.2%). Our molecular analyses demonstrated that the emerging cercariae showed most similarity to either the 28S ribosomal RNA gene ( 28 S rDNA) or cytochrome oxidase C subunit 1 gene ( cox 1 or COI) sequences to those of Trichobilharzia species. In addition, phylogenetic tree analyses of both loci revealed similar results; the emerging cercariae were consistently clustered together with Trichobilharzia regenti ., Conclusion: Our results clearly confirmed that the detected furcocercous cercariae belonged to the genus Trichobilharzia and displayed the highest homology to T. regenti . This study provides important data on the occurrence of dermatitis causing cercariae infection among local lymnaeidae snails, encouraging effective management, and control measures for this zoonotic infectious disease., (Copyright: © Japa, et al.)

The trematode parasite Fasciola hepatica causes chronic infection in hosts, enabled by an immunosuppressed environment. Both host and parasite factors are known to contribute to this suggesting that avoidance of immunopathology is beneficial to both parties. We have previously characterised a parasite transforming growth factor (TGF)-like molecule, FhTLM, that interacts with host macrophages to prevent antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC). FhTLM is one of many described helminth TGF homologues and multiple helminths are now known to utilise host immune responses as developmental cues. To test whether, or how, F. hepatica uses FhTLM to manipulate host immunity, we initially examined its effects on the CD4 T-cell phenotype. Despite inducing IL-10, there was no induction of FoxP3 within the CD4 T-cell compartment. In addition to inducing IL-10, a wide range of chemokines were elicited from both CD4 T-cells and macrophages. However, no growth or survival advantage was conferred on F. hepatica in our co-culture system when CD4 T-cells, macrophages, or eosinophils were tested. Finally, using RNA interference we were able to verify a host-independent role for FhTLM in parasite growth. Despite the similarities of FhTLM with other described helminth TGF homologues, here we demonstrate species-specific divergence., (Copyright © 2021 Australian Society for Parasitology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background and Aim: Ruminant flukes, including Fasciola spp. and Paramphistomum spp., are recognized as the significant parasites in livestock worldwide. Cattle infected by these fluke results in slower growth rate and productivity losses contributing to economic losses. In case of Fasciola spp., the parasite is considered as an important zoonotic parasite. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of fluke invasion in beef cattle around Phayao Lake, Phayao, Thailand, between January 2019 and June 2019., Materials and Methods: A total of 311 fecal samples from beef cows reared nearby Phayao Lake were examined for the presence of fluke eggs by formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation and subsequently identified by morphology together with methylene blue staining., Results: The overall prevalence of fluke invasion in beef cattle around Phayao Lake was 33.8% (105/311). The prevalence of rumen fluke and liver fluke was 25.4% (79/311) and 8.4% (26/311), respectively. Mixed infection of both species was found at 1.9% (6/311)., Conclusion: Age of cattle was observed to be associated with invasion rate of all flukes, particularly in the ages over 4 years, which was the highest group of invasion. However, other risk factors, including gender, breed, and location of animals, were not found to be related. This study provides the current status of natural fluke invasion among the beef cattle in Phayao, Thailand, which could be critical for designing the control program of these parasites., (Copyright: © Japa, et al.)

Aim: This study aims to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection and to identify the species of Cryptosporidium spp. in newborn dairy calves between December 2016 and March 2017 in Muang District, Khon Kaen Province, Thailand., Materials and Methods: A total of 200 fecal samples from newborn dairy calves of the ages 1 day up to 28 days were collected and the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts was examined microscopically using the modified Kinyoun's acid-fast staining technique. Then, Cryptosporidium species were identified using nested polymerase chain reaction amplification of 18S rRNA gene and sequencing., Results: The modified Kinyoun's acid-fast staining revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in 51% (102/200). Sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA gene identified two species, namely, Cryptosporidium bovis (n=11) and Cryptosporidium ryanae (n=11) and one isolated strain could not be identified., Conclusion: This study indicated that newborn dairy calves aging up to 4 weeks were highly infected with Cryptosporidium spp., and the infection mostly occurred in diarrheic dairy calves. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium in dairy calves in Khon Kaen Province and the results provide baseline information for further studies and control of Cryptosporidium infection in dairy calves in the study area., (Copyright: © Doungmala, et al.)

Neospora caninum, the causative agent of neosporosis, is recognised as a significant trigger of abortion and productivity losses in cattle worldwide. Current information regarding to the prevalence of N. caninum in Thailand is limited due to the limitations of detection methods and the difficulty of recovering of viable parasite. Vertical transmission is the main route of N. caninum infection in cattle. Therefore, detection of N. caninum DNA in placental tissue could be a possible means of laboratory diagnosis of neosporosis in live animals, particularly in the context of transplacental transmission. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of transplacentally transmitted N. caninum infection in female beef cattle in the northern Thai province of Phayao by detection of N. caninum DNA in bovine placenta by PCR. A total of 96 bovine placentas were collected from 7 districts of Phayao. Our result indicated that overall PCR prevalence of N. caninum in cattle in this area was 36.5% varying from 16.7-50.0% between districts. The districts with the highest prevalence of infection were Muang (50.0%) and Mae Chai (44.7%). The proportion of N. caninum infection was quite high suggesting that newborn calves were at risk of congenital infection. This study provides a current snapshot of the status of bovine neosporosis in Phayao which could lead to the development of effective strategies for prevention and control this disease., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The presence of Neospora caninum Dubey, Carpenter, Speer, Topper et Uggla, 1988 in small mammals (i.e. murid rodents, Erinaceomorpha, Eulipotyphla and Scadentia) was explored for first time in South-East Asia. A total of 192 individuals from six localities across Thailand were analysed. A general prevalence of N. caninum of 22% was observed, with some variation among localities (5-36%). Four main types of habitat were included and rodents trapped in dry-land habitat (17 positive among 41 individuals) were more likely to be infected with N. caninum than those from other habitats (forest, rain-fed land and settlement). Rodent species identity and individual rodent weight had no influence on individual infection. Our results provided the first data on the presence of N. caninum in rodents in South-East Asia and first report of N. caninum in the order Scadentia.

The trematode Fasciola hepatica is responsible for chronic zoonotic infection globally. Despite causing a potent T-helper 2 response, it is believed that potent immunomodulation is responsible for rendering this host reactive non-protective host response thereby allowing the parasite to remain long-lived. We have previously identified a growth factor, FhTLM, belonging to the TGF superfamily can have developmental effects on the parasite. Herein we demonstrate that FhTLM can exert influence over host immune functions in a host receptor specific fashion. FhTLM can bind to receptor members of the Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) superfamily, with a greater affinity for TGF-β RII. Upon ligation FhTLM initiates the Smad2/3 pathway resulting in phenotypic changes in both fibroblasts and macrophages. The formation of fibroblast CFUs is reduced when cells are cultured with FhTLM, as a result of TGF-β RI kinase activity. In parallel the wound closure response of fibroblasts is also delayed in the presence of FhTLM. When stimulated with FhTLM blood monocyte derived macrophages adopt an alternative or regulatory phenotype. They express high levels interleukin (IL)-10 and arginase-1 while displaying low levels of IL-12 and nitric oxide. Moreover they also undergo significant upregulation of the inhibitory receptor PD-L1 and the mannose receptor. Use of RNAi demonstrates that this effect is dependent on TGF-β RII and mRNA knock-down leads to a loss of IL-10 and PD-L1. Finally, we demonstrate that FhTLM aids newly excysted juveniles (NEJs) in their evasion of antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC) by reducing the NO response of macrophages-again dependent on TGF-β RI kinase. FhTLM displays restricted expression to the F. hepatica gut resident NEJ stages. The altered fibroblast responses would suggest a role for dampened tissue repair responses in facilitating parasite migration. Furthermore, the adoption of a regulatory macrophage phenotype would allow for a reduced effector response targeting juvenile parasites which we demonstrate extends to an abrogation of the ADCC response. Thus suggesting that FhTLM is a stage specific evasion molecule that utilises host cytokine receptors. These findings are the first to clearly demonstrate the interaction of a helminth cytokine with a host receptor complex resulting in immune modifications that facilitate the non-protective chronic immune response which is characteristic of F. hepatica infection., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The helminth Fasciola hepatica causes fasciolosis throughout the world, a major disease of livestock and an emerging zoonotic disease in humans. Sustainable control mechanisms such as vaccination are urgently required. To discover potential vaccine targets we undertook a genome screen to identify members of the transforming growth factor (TGF) family of proteins. Herein we describe the discovery of three ligands belonging to this superfamily and the cloning and characterisation of an activin/TGF like molecule we term FhTLM. FhTLM has a limited expression pattern both temporally across the parasite stages but also spatially within the worm. Furthermore, a recombinant form of this protein is able to enhance the rate (or magnitude) of multiple developmental processes of the parasite indicating a conserved role for this protein superfamily in the developmental biology of a major trematode parasite. Our study demonstrates for the first time the existence of this protein superfamily within F. hepatica and assigns a function to one of the three identified ligands. Moreover further exploration of this superfamily may yield future targets for diagnostic or vaccination purposes due to its stage restricted expression and functional role.

Allele frequency distributions at five VNTR loci namely; D1S80, D17S5, ApoB, COL2A1 and Ig-JH were examined in Northeastern Thais. The number of alleles at each locus were 19, 13, 14, 6 and 8 with the heterozygous frequencies of 0.814, 0.818, 0.676, 0.579 and 0.288, respectively. No significant deviations were found by statistical tests for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The combined power of discrimination for all five loci was 0.99998.