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Intervention is considered the ultimate goal of the diagnostic process. However, when diagnostic assessment is largely focused on student (mal)adjustment and when the role and perspective of the teacher is not systematically evaluated, the assessment may fail to generate useful recommendations for intervention or teacher consultation. Based on a descriptive case report, the potential contribution of the Teacher Relationship Interview in making the assessment phase more relevant to intervention is outlined and illustrated.

Background: Research on dyadic teacher–child relationships has grown rapidly. However, a review of relevant theories and its implications for assessment and intervention has been lacking so far. Methods: A selective review of theories, empirical evidence and interventions was conducted. Results and Conclusions: Different theories highlight distinct aspects of teacher–child relationships and have different implications for assessment and intervention. The attachment perspective on dyadic teacher–child relationships is most widely applied in psychological research. Also relatively well-known is self-determination theory. However, the interpersonal theory, though widely applied in educational research to teacher–class interactions, has been largely overlooked in research on dyadic teacher–child relationships. The overarching dyadic systems perspective, providing insight in the dynamic interplay between different aspects of teacher–child relationships, also deserves more attention. Recommendations to improve teacher–child relationships address the need for teacher sensitivity, relationship-based communication and flexibility in interpersonal behaviour in everyday teaching.

Relationships with children with special educational needs can be emotionally challenging for teachers and conflicts may negatively impact both children and teachers. Beginning teachers in particular may struggle with negative teacher-child relationships and the emotions these invoke. A first step in coping with relationship difficulties with specific children is increasing the teacher’s awareness and understanding of relational themes and emotions in the relationship with that specific child. Therefore, this multiple case intervention study examined the effects of LLInC (Leerkracht Leerling Interactie Coaching in Dutch, or: Teacher Student Interaction Coaching) in a sample of six student teachers in their final internship. LLInC is a relationship-focused coaching program using narrative interview techniques to facilitate in-depth reflection on teacher-child relationships. The intervention aims to foster teachers’ awareness of (negative) internalized emotions and beliefs in order to improve closeness and positive affect, and to reduce conflict and negative affect in teacher-child relationships. Participants repeatedly reported on their perceptions of the teacher-child relationship and on emotions in relation to a specific child before and after the LLInC intervention, which consisted of two one-on-one sessions with a coach. Visual between- and within-phases analyses revealed differential intervention effects across teachers on the development of teacher-child relationship quality and relationship emotions. For all teachers, except for one, positive effects were found on feelings of joy and perceptions of closeness. Preventive effects (i.e., stopping downward trends) were more often observed for competence-based and relationship-based emotions and perceptions (competence, commitment, closeness) than for basic emotions (joy, anger, worry). Although further research is needed, the results highlight the potential of LLInC in influencing pre-service teachers’ child-specific emotions and relationship perceptions. Directions for future research and implications for teacher education are discussed. ispartof: Frontiers In Education vol:6 pages:1-11 status: Published online

This longitudinal study investigated the role of teacher-student closeness and conflict in adolescents' school engagement trajectories, and how school engagement dimensions predict achievement trajectories. A sample of 5,382 adolescents (Mage.wave1 = 13.06, SD = 0.51; 49.6% boys) were followed from Grade 7 to 9. Yearly measures included student reports on school engagement dimensions, teacher reports on closeness and conflict, and standardized tests for math achievement. Latent growth models revealed that closeness positively and conflict negatively predicted students' school engagement. Furthermore, adolescents' behavioral and emotional engagement, and disaffection in particular, played an important role in predicting achievement within the same schoolyear. Moreover, increases in behavioral disaffection and emotional engagement aligned with reduced and steeper increases in achievement between Grade 7 and 9, respectively. In general, this study underscores the importance of adolescents’ affective teacher-student relationships for their engagement in school, and the role of school engagement in predicting achievement. ispartof: Learning And Instruction vol:75 pages:1-12 status: Published online

The attachment-based perspective on teacher-student relationships assumes that teachers internalize experiences with specific students into mental representations of dyadic relationships. Once activated, mental representations are believed to influence teachers' affective and cognitive social information processing. Two priming experiments with 57 elementary school teachers were conducted to test these assumptions. To activate teachers' mental representations of dyadic relationships, teachers were primed with photographs of students with whom they have a positive and negative relationship (two experimental conditions) as well as with photographs of students with whom they have a distant relationship and unknown students (two control conditions). Teachers' responses in two different experiments -an emotion categorization task and a vignette task -were analyzed to measure differences between conditions. Mixed evidence was found for the idea that teachers' mental representations of dyadic relationships impact their affective and cognitive information processing. ispartof: PSYCHOLOGICA BELGICA vol:59 issue:1 pages:156-176 ispartof: location:England status: published

Background: The study examined how teachers and children with emotional and behavioral disturbances engage in dialogues about children's emotional experiences. Dialogues about emotions are an important strategy for teachers to co-regulate children's emotions but have remained understudied. Aims: This study aimed to explore whether the Autobiographical Emotional Events Dialogue (AEED) can help to assess the quality of teacher-child emotion dialogues about past emotional events and examined associations with child behavior and teacher-child relationship quality. Method: The sample included 85 children and 70 teachers from special education schools serving children with emotional and behavioral disturbances. Teacher-child dialogues were videotaped and coded using the 16 rating scales of the AEED coding system (Koren-Karie, Oppenheim, Carasso, & Haimovich, 2003). Results: The scales (except child boundary dissolution) could be reliably assessed. A Principal Component Analysis yielded 4 factors: Adequate task completion (coherent dialogues and positive child task behavior), Negativity (hostility and teacher boundary dissolution), Teacher Guidance (involvement, structuring, and acceptance), and Resolution (positive closure of negative stories). Child age, verbal intelligence, prosocial behavior, and higher teacher-child relationship scores (higher closeness, lower conflict) were positively associated with the quality of the dialogues but behavior problems were not. Conclusions and implications: The study provides first insight in teachers' scaffolding of dialogues with children about negative emotional events in special education serving children with emotional and behavioral disturbances. Keywords: Emotion dialogues; Emotional and behavioral disturbances; Observations; Special education; Teacher-child relationships. ispartof: Research In Developmental Disabilities vol:112 pages:1-11 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Children’s atypical processing of social behavior of teachers may explain poor teacher-child relationships. To test this assumption, we developed the Social Information Processing in Teacher-child Interactions Test (SIP-TIT) and evaluated its psychometric properties. The SIP-TIT examines children’s SIP in ambiguous situations with teachers asking children to respond to 4 audio-taped hypothetical vignettes. The sample consisted of 302 primary school children (Mage=10.75, SD=0.95) and 12 teachers. Children and teachers completed questionnaires on teacher-child relationships quality (closeness, conflict, and dependency) and teachers also rated child aggression. Scale reliability and construct validity were examined. Children’s SIP and in particular hostile intent attribution was associated with child perceptions of poor teacher-child relationships. Hostile intent attribution and Rejection of prosocial response were associated with more aggression. https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/VQEIAHSTPACQGANDQXBK/full?target=10.1080/17405629.2019.1699402 ispartof: European Journal Of Developmental Psychology vol:17 issue:4 pages:1-13 status: Published online

This study investigated the joint contribution of child-mother attachment quality and child temperamental inhibition to the development of child-teacher dependency. A sample of 237 kindergartners (Mage = 60.2 months) and their teachers from 36 classrooms participated. Preschool child-mother attachment quality was assessed using the Attachment Q-set. Behavioral inhibition was rated by the preschool teacher. Dependency was assessed at three waves during kindergarten, using observer and teacher reports. In line with assumptions from attachment theory, less securely attached children were observed to be more overly reliant on their teacher in class. For behavioral inhibition, a divergent picture emerged depending on the assessment of dependency: Classroom observations yielded less (overt) indications of dependency among more inhibited children, whereas teachers reported more (covert) expressions of dependency. These results suggest that different measures may capture different aspects of the multifaceted construct of dependency, thus calling for more conceptual and empirical work. ispartof: Attachment & Human Development vol:23 issue:5 pages:1-19 ispartof: location:England status: Published online

Research stresses the importance of teacher sensitivity for the development of special needs students, including students with attachment problems. However, little is known about the antecedents of teacher sensitivity. This study investigated associations between teachers’ daily negative emotions and teacher sensitivity towards individual students. Data were collected from 71 teacher-student dyads in special education primary schools and included students with mild to severe attachment problems (6 to 10 years old). Teachers reported their daily negative activating (e.g. anger) and deactivating (e.g. sadness) emotions in relation to individual students during a three-week period. Teacher sensitivity was observed in interaction with the target student in a cognitively challenging and an emotionally challenging task. Teachers’ higher but decreasing negative activating emotions were associated with higher levels of observed teacher sensitivity in the cognitively challenging task. In addition, heightened levels of negative deactivating emotions were associated with lower levels of observed teacher sensitivity but only in the emotionally challenging task. ispartof: European Journal of Special Needs Education vol:34 issue:4 pages:514-529 status: published

Research on teacher–student relationships is mainly based on questionnaires investigating teachers’ explicit cognitions. However, it is also important to investigate implicit processes in social interactions, such as internalized feelings. The Teacher Relationship Interview (TRI) is a narrative method aimed at assessing teachers’ (implicit) mental representations of dyadic teacher–student relationships. The TRI may provide—for researchers as well as practitioners—a deeper understanding of teachers’ implicit cognitive and emotional processes elicited in teacher–student relationships, which can be useful for psychodiagnostic assessment and relationship-focused consultation with teachers. This study investigated the psychometric properties of the TRI in a special education sample of students with symptoms of attachment disorders (N = 80). Expected interrelations of the TRI scales were found with a widely used questionnaire of teacher–student relationships, independent observations of teacher–student interactions, and teacher perceptions of student behavior. ispartof: Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment vol:37 issue:7 pages:874-886 status: published

Teachers' relational experiences in the classroom shape their interpretations and behaviors in interactions with students. In order to understand teachers' relational experiences, this study analyzed the narrative accounts of three teachers on the individual teacher-student and peer group relationships in their classrooms. A qualitative-interpretative analysis revealed three themes: (1) teachers’ reflections on the classroom relationships draw on dynamic (changeable) as well as stable (unchangeable) explanations, (2) teachers seemed to struggle with a tension between their professional self-understanding and experienced reality, and (3) teachers seemed to have a lack of a language to talk about their relational experiences in the classroom.

Executive functions (EFs), important cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, develop due to maturation and environmental stimulation. The current study systematically reviews and synthesizes evidence on the association between teacher–student interactions and EFs. The search resulted in 28 studies, from which 23 studies provided sufficient data to be included in the calculations. Overall effect sizes indicate that teacher–child interactions are related to general executive functioning, working memory, and inhibition but not cognitive flexibility. Relationships were stronger for studies including children at the beginning of elementary school, studies with higher socioeconomic status participants and more boys, and studies measuring teacher–child interactions at the dyadic level. This study shows that qualitative teacher–child interactions are important for performance in EFs in children. This suggests that teachers can promote the cognitive processes that are essential in children’s learning by changing their behavior to create an emotionally positive, structured, and cognitively stimulating classroom environment.

The present study examined how teachers' interpersonal behaviors (control, affiliation) and complementarity tendencies (i.e., return low control with high control and high affiliation with similar affiliation) were related to children's task behaviors (engagement, performance). Furthermore, we investigated whether the strength of these associations depended on children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Our sample included 48 teachers and 179 kindergartners (94 boys; mean age = 66.75 months) who were selected to represent a variation of externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Independent observers rated teachers' interpersonal behaviors and children's task behaviors. Teacher control was negatively related to both children's task engagement and performance, whereas teacher affiliation was not associated with children's task behaviors. Furthermore, associations between teachers' complementarity tendencies on control and children's task performance depended on the level of control that children displayed themselves. To conclude, teachers should be made aware that controlling behaviors could be detrimental for children's task behaviors.

The main goal of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of a newly-developed performance-based test of socioemotional understanding: the Domino Test for Socioemotional Understanding (DOTSEMU). The sample consisted of 304 third-graders from 8 to 10 years (Mage = 9.31, SD = 0.44, 50% boys) from six Polish primary schools (sixteen classes). The data was collected using teacher and parent questionnaires (on pro-social behavior, hyperactivity, emotional problems, peer problems, and conduct problems), peer nominations of cooperative behavior, and performance-based tests of social understanding and emotional awareness. Results suggested that the reliability of the DOTSEMU was modest. The DOTSEMU explained unique variance in children’s outcomes, taking into account another validated and performance-based measure of emotional awareness. Overall, the study provided first evidence that the DOTSEMU assesses socioemotional understanding and contributes to the prediction of socio-behavioral and emotional (mal)adjustment in children. ispartof: European Journal of Developmental Psychology vol:16 issue:6 pages:739-749 status: Published online

To understand and support teacher–student interactions, there is a need for research on teachers’ daily emotions in interactions with students. Therefore, this study investigated the development of teachers’ negative emotions in interactions with individual students with attachment problems. Using a 3-week diary study, data were collected from 71 teacher–student dyads in special education schools for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Overall, the development of both activating (e.g., anger) and deactivating (e.g., helplessness) negative emotions was low and stable over time. Teachers with high self-efficacy and teachers with a high supportive teaching style were less likely to experience intensity of and variability in negative emotions. Student maladjustment and teachers’ depersonalization attitudes were positively associated with more activating negative emotions. Beginning teachers reported more deactivating negative emotions. The study highlights the need of emotion-focused interventions for teachers to promote positive interactions between teachers and individual students. ispartof: Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders vol:27 issue:1 pages:37-51 status: published

This intervention study examined teachers' use of verbal praise and reprimands as specific components of teacher behavior management that can promote children's development in schools. The impact of teacher praise and reprimands on children's development was examined in the context of a teacher-mediated, classroom intervention. The sample involved 570 children and 30 teachers from 2nd grade classrooms in 15 primary schools. The Good Behavior Game was implemented in half of the classrooms based on random assignment within schools. Teacher behavior management (praise for appropriate behavior and reprimands for inappropriate behavior) was observed during regular classroom lessons. Hyperactive, Disruptive, and Withdrawn child behavior were assessed using teacher and peer reports, Global self-concept and Emotional engagement were assessed using child self-reports. All variables were assessed at the beginning (pre-test) and at the end (post-test) of the school year. Multilevel regression models accounted for the nested structure of the data. The results suggested positive effects of fewer reprimands and more praise on child outcomes (except Emotional school engagement), although the results differed by informant. We also found indirect effects of the GBG on child outcomes via teacher praise and reprimands. Overall, the study suggests that teachers' use of praise and reprimands is a malleable classroom factor that influences children's behavioral and socio-emotional development. ispartof: Prevention Science vol:17 issue:6 pages:732-742 ispartof: location:United States status: published

The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of a brief, teacher-led intervention (EMOscope) developed to promote children’s socioemotional competence. Our sample consisted of 339 Polish pupils and their 16 teachers from 16 third grade classrooms. Teachers in the experimental condition (8 teachers) were trained to deliver the EMOscope intervention. Data were collected at pre-test and post-test. Performance tests were administered to measure children’s social understanding and emotional awareness. Furthermore, peer ratings were used to measure children’s cooperative behaviour and teachers’ reported on children’s prosocial behaviour, hyperactivity, emotional problems, conduct problems, and peer problems. Multilevel regression analysis revealed that children in the experimental condition improved significantly on emotional self- and other-awareness and on social understanding. Moreover, they decreased in teacher-rated hyperactivity, conduct problems, and total difficulties. No effects were found, however, on teacher-rated prosocial behaviour, emotional problems, peer problems, and peer-rated cooperative behaviour. ispartof: European Journal of Developmental Psychology vol:16 issue:1 pages:97-112 status: published

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. Working memory performance, important for children's learning, can be influenced by social interactions. The current study investigates whether parent and teacher support buffer the negative effect of peer rejection on working memory performance, using an experimental approach. Children from third to sixth grade (aged 8–14; n = 412) filled out questionnaires and completed an experiment. Working memory performance (Corsi Task Backwards) was measured at the beginning of the experiment. Next, peer rejection was manipulated (Cyberball Task), followed by a manipulation of parent and teacher support (audio message) and a posttest measure of working memory. There was no main effect of peer rejection and parent or teacher support. Social acceptance did moderate the buffering effect of teacher support for working memory performance. Teachers should be aware of the role of their relational support for children's cognition and learning. ispartof: LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES vol:67 pages:12-21 status: published

It is suggested that dependent teacher-child relationships are associated with emotional insecurity and a lack of autonomous exploration that interferes with children’s school development. This might be especially observed among children with attachment problems who may have developed a profound sense of insecurity in relationships with others. In this study, the effects of dependency on children’s classroom and peer engagement were examined as well as the protective role of teacher sensitivity. The sample included 85 Belgian children with mild to severe attachment problems and 70 teachers from special education schools. Data on teacher sensitivity and teacher-child relationship quality (Dependency, Conflict, Closeness) were collected in the first trimester of the school year using independent observations and teacher questionnaires respectively. Teachers also completed questionnaires on classroom engagement (Independent Classroom Participation) and peer engagement (Social Withdrawal) in the first, second, and third trimester. Dependency was uniquely associated with lower levels of independent classroom participation. Moreover, low teacher sensitivity predicted declines in independent classroom participation among overly dependent children, whereas high teacher sensitivity predicted growth in independent classroom participation. Dependency and teacher sensitivity did not predict social withdrawal. This study highlights the importance of teachers being sensitive to the needs of overly dependent children to support the autonomous exploratory behavior of these children. Public Significance Statement This study corroborated the idea that children with attachment problems who are overly dependent on teachers may miss out on opportunities for learning because they do not use the teacher as a secure base for autonomous exploration of the classroom. Low sensitivity of teachers to the needs of these children exacerbated problems in classroom participation. However, children showed growth in autonomous classroom participation when teachers were sensitive to the children’s needs. ispartof: School Psychology Quarterly vol:33 issue:3 pages:419-427 ispartof: location:United States status: published

To better understand Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), the current study tested whether emotionally and behaviorally disordered children with versus without RAD differ with regard to the quality of their interpersonal behavior during interactions with teachers and with regard to their representations of self and others. Therefore, 77 children were screened for RAD symptoms and 22 likely cases of inhibited RAD were identified. To measure quality of the interactions with teachers, we observed children's trust and positive affect in dyadic interactions with teachers. For the representations of others, we measured self-reported trust in parents and teachers. For the representations of the self, two self-esteem assessments were individually administered. Results showed that, compared to children with other emotional and behavior disorders, RAD children's behavior reflected less trust in their teachers. At the level of representations, children reported less trust in teacher care. Instead, no links were found with self-report measures focusing on representations of parents and of self. These findings will be discussed in light of the ongoing discussion about whether or not attachment disorder and insecure attachment are associated concepts. ispartof: Attachment & Human Development vol:21 issue:2 pages:190-204 ispartof: location:England status: published

There is accumulating evidence that social relationships can buffer the development of depression in childhood and adolescence. However, few studies have focused on teacher-child relationships in the elementary school years. In addition, research that has examined bidirectional relations between teacher involvement and depressive symptoms is virtually absent in this age period. The participants in this study were 570 children and 30 teachers from 15 elementary schools. Data on children's depressive symptoms (peer- and teacher-reports) and teacher involvement (teacher-reports) were collected in the fall and spring of Grade 2 and Grade 3 (four waves). As expected, negative cross-time effects of teacher involvement on depressive symptoms were found within grade 2 and 3. In addition, a negative cross-time effect of depressive symptoms on teacher involvement was found in grade 3 only. The results thus indicate the protective role of teacher involvement in the development of depressive symptoms but also suggest that teachers may become less involved over time when they perceive a child as more depressed. ispartof: JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY vol:47 issue:2 pages:359-367 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Purpose: This study explored how teacher–child relationships change over the early school years, in terms of closeness and conflict, whether these trajectories differ in type and frequency for children with typical development and children with speech and language concern (SLC), and whether the trajectories are associated with school outcomes at 12–13 years. Method: Participants were children, parents and teachers in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. Parents identified 2890 children with typical communication and 1442 children with SLC. Teacher-rated teacher–child closeness and conflict were collected biennially over six years. Academic and social-emotional outcomes were reported by teachers and children. Growth mixture modelling was conducted to generate teacher–child relationship trajectories and Wald’s chisquare analyses were used to test the association between trajectories and school outcomes at 12–13 years, after controlling for a range of covariates including child’s sex, language background, Indigenous status, age and socio-economic position. Result: In both groups, the majority of children had teacher–child relationship trajectories with sustained high closeness and low conflict that predicted positive outcomes at age 12–13, but the SLC group was more at risk of less positive trajectories and poorer school outcomes. Conclusion: Close, less conflicted relationships with teachers may provide a supportive context for later language, literacy and social-emotional development. This study highlights the role of teachers in supporting children in their development of communication and academic skills that will optimise their capacity for freedom of opinions and expression, education and participation, as enshrined in Articles 19, 26 and 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. ispartof: International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology vol:20 issue:1 pages:133-141 ispartof: location:England status: published

This longitudinal study examined developmental links between closeness in teacher-child relationships and children’s receptive language ability from the end of the preschool years into the early elementary years, while controlling for changes in peer interaction quality and child behavioral functioning. The sample included children and their parents and teachers (N = 4,983) participating in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC) at ages 4/5, 6/7, and 8/9 years (three waves). Teachers reported on levels of closeness in relationships with individual children. Independent assessments of receptive language were employed. Parents and teachers reported on peer interaction problems and child conduct problems. Results indicated reciprocal associations between close teacher-child relationships and receptive language development above and beyond associations with peer interaction quality and child behavioral functioning. However, the effects were only modest. Included in the Australian Governments Department of Social Services (DSS's) Longitudinal Surveys Electronic (FLoSse) Research archive:http://hdl.handle.net/10620/4137. ispartof: Developmental Psychology vol:51 issue:2 pages:185-196 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Working memory, used to temporarily store and mentally manipulate information, is important for children's learning. It is therefore valuable to understand which (contextual) factors promote or hinder working memory performance. Recent research shows positive associations between positive parent-child and teacher-student interactions and working memory performance and development. However, no study has yet experimentally investigated how parents and teachers affect working memory performance. Based on attachment theory, the current study investigated the role of parent and teacher emotional support in promoting working memory performance by buffering the negative effect of social stress. Questionnaires and an experimental session were completed by 170 children from grade 1 to 2 (Mage = 7 years 6 months, SD = 7 months). Questionnaires were used to assess children's perceptions of the teacher-student and parent-child relationship. During an experimental session, working memory was measured with the Corsi task backward (Milner, 1971) in a pre- and post-test design. In-between the tests stress was induced in the children using the Cyberball paradigm (Williams et al., 2000). Emotional support was manipulated (between-subjects) through an audio message (either a weather report, a supportive message of a stranger, a supportive message of a parent, or a supportive message of a teacher). Results of repeated measures ANOVA showed no clear effect of the stress induction. Nevertheless, an effect of parent and teacher support was found and depended on the quality of the parent-child relationship. When children had a positive relationship with their parent, support of parents and teachers had little effect on working memory performance. When children had a negative relationship with their parent, a supportive message of that parent decreased working memory performance, while a supportive message from the teacher increased performance. In sum, the current study suggests that parents and teachers can support working memory performance by being supportive for the child. Teacher support is most effective when the child has a negative relationship with the parent. These insights can give direction to specific measures aimed at preventing and resolving working memory problems and related issues. ispartof: Frontiers in Psychology vol:8 issue:MAR ispartof: location:Switzerland status: published

In the present study, we investigated whether teachers’ and children’s interactive behaviors are associated with children’s levels of externalizing and internalizing behavior. A total of 48 teachers and 179 kindergartners were observed in small group settings in the classroom. Independent observers rated teachers’ and children’s interactive behaviors (control and affiliation). Teachers reported about children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors on the Behavior Questionnaire for Two- to Six-Year-Olds-Modified. Multilevel regression analyses indicated that teachers were more dominant and friendly toward children with higher levels of internalizing behavior, whereas these children themselves displayed less initiative and less friendliness toward the teacher. Teachers displayed less friendliness toward children with higher levels of externalizing behavior, whereas these children themselves did not display less friendliness than other children. To improve teacher-child interactions, teachers should be less controlling toward internalizing children and more warm and friendly toward externalizing children.___In deze studie werd onderzocht of het interactieve gedrag van leerkrachten en kinderen verband houdt met de mate van externaliserend en internaliserend gedrag van kinderen. In totaal werden 48 leerkrachten en 179 kleuters geobserveerd in een kleine groepssetting in het klaslokaal. Onafhankelijke beoordelaars scoorden het interactieve gedrag van leerkrachten en kinderen (controle en affiliatie). Leerkrachten rapporteerden op de Behavior Questionnaire for Two- to Six-Year-Olds-Modified over externaliserend en internaliserend gedrag. Uit de multilevel regressieanalyses bleek dat leerkrachten zowel controlerender als vriendelijker waren naar kinderen met internaliserend gedrag, terwijl deze kinderen zelf minder initiatief en minder vriendelijkheid vertoonden naar de leerkracht. Leerkrachten waren minder vriendelijk naar kinderen met externaliserend gedrag, terwijl deze kinderen zelf niet minder vriendelijk waren dan andere kinderen. Leerkracht-kindinteracties kunnen verbeteren, indien leerkrachten minder controlerend zijn naar internaliserende kinderen en warmer en vriendelijker naar externaliserende kinderen.

This study aimed to understand how relationships with peers and teachers contribute to the development of internalizing problems via children’s social self-concept. The sample included 570 children aged 7 years 5 months (SD = 4.6 months). Peer nominations of peer rejection, child-reported social self-concept, and teacher-reported internalizing problems were assessed longitudinally in the fall and spring of Grades 2 and 3. Teacher reports of support to the child were assessed in Grade 2. Results showed that peer rejection impeded children’s social self-concept, which in turn affected the development of internalizing problems. Partial support was found for individual (but not classroom-level) teacher support to buffer the adverse effects of peer problems on children’s self-concept, thereby mitigating its indirect effects on internalizing problems. ispartof: Child Development vol:85 issue:3 pages:1248-1256 ispartof: location:United States status: published

The present study investigated whether the complementarity principle (mutual interactive behaviors are opposite on control and similar on affiliation) applies to teacher-child interactions within the kindergarten classroom. Furthermore, it was examined whether interactive behaviors and complementarity depended on children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors, interaction time, and interaction frequency. A total of 48 teachers and 179 selected kindergartners with a variety of externalizing and internalizing behaviors were observed in a small group task setting in the natural ecology of the classroom. Teachers' and children's interactive behaviors were rated by independent observers. Teachers reported about children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Multilevel analyses indicated that both teachers and children reacted complementarily on the control dimension but not on the affiliation dimension. Teachers showed more control and more affiliation toward children with higher levels of internalizing behavior. In addition, teachers displayed less affiliation toward children with higher levels of externalizing behavior, whereas those children did not show less affiliation themselves. Teachers' and children's complementarity tendencies on control were weaker if children had higher levels of externalizing behavior. © 2012 Society for the Study of School Psychology.

Het doel van deze studie was te onderzoeken of groepen kinderen met verschillende risicoprofielen verschillend reageren op het universele, klassikale preventieprogramma Taakspel. Taakspel werd uitgevoerd in groep 3 en 4 als onderdeel van een gerandomiseerd gecontroleerd onderzoek waarin 759 basisschoolleerlingen participeerden. De invloed van Taakspel op de ontwikkeling van externaliserend en internaliserend probleemgedrag van groep 2 (voormeting) t/m groep 4 werd in kaart gebracht op basis van vier metingen. Op basis van combinaties van kindfactoren, relaties met leeftijdsgenoten, gezinsfactoren en maatschappelijke factoren werden zes subgroepen geïdentificeerd die verschillend waren wat betreft risicoprofiel aan het begin van de studie. Taakspel bleek effectief bij kinderen met een laag-risicoprofiel. Taakspel was ook effectief bij kinderen met emotionele problemen en bij kinderen die het slachtoffer van pesten waren. Taakspel was echter niet effectief bij kinderen met gezinsproblemen en bij kinderen met een combinatie van bovengemiddelde tot zeer hoge niveaus van gedrag- en sociale problemen voor aanvang van de interventie. ispartof: Kind en Adolescent vol:34 issue:4 pages:195-207 status: published

A relationship-focused reflection program (RFRP) was developed that targeted teachers' mental representations of relationships with specific children. Relative effectiveness was examined in a randomized comparative trial with repeated measures. Thirty-two teachers were assigned to the RFRP or the comparison intervention directly aimed at teacher behavior. Per teacher, two children (N = 64) were selected with above-median levels of externalizing behavior. Multilevel growth modeling was used to explore intervention effects on teacher-reported Closeness and Conflict, and observed Teacher Sensitivity and Behavior Management Quality. Teaching Efficacy was included as a moderator. The RFRP yielded changes over time in closeness for about half of the teacher-child dyads. In addition, teachers with high efficacy beliefs were more likely to report declines in conflict than low-efficacy teachers. Lastly, significant increases were found in observed sensitivity. These effects were different from those found in the comparison condition and provided preliminary evidence for the potential of in-depth reflection on specific relationships to promote teacher-child relationships. ispartof: Attachment & Human Development vol:14 issue:3 pages:305-318 ispartof: location:England status: published

This study modeled teacher-student relationship trajectories throughout elementary school to predict gains in achievement in an ethnic-diverse sample of 657 academically at-risk students (mean age = 6.57 years, SD = .39). Teacher reports of warmth and conflict were collected in Grades 1-5. Achievement was tested in Grades 1 and 6. For conflict, low-stable (normative), low-increasing, high-declining, and high-stable trajectories were found. For warmth, high-declining (normative) and low-increasing patterns were found. Children with early behavioral, academic, or social risks were underrepresented in the normative trajectory groups. Chronic conflict was most strongly associated with underachievement. Rising conflict but not declining Conflict coincided with underachievement. The probability of school failure increased as a function of the timing and length of time children were exposed to relational adversity.

Although research consistently points to poorer teacher–student relationships for boys than girls, there are no studies that take into account the effects of teacher gender and control for possible measurement non-invariance across student and teacher gender. This study addressed both issues. The sample included 649 primary school teachers (182 men) and 1493 students (685 boys). Teachers completed a slightly adapted version of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale. The results indicated limited measurement non-invariance in teacher reports. Female teachers reported better (i.e., more close, less conflictual, and less dependent) relationships with students than male teachers. In addition, both male and female teachers reported more conflictual relationships with boys than with girls, and female teachers also reported less close relationships with boys than with girls. The findings challenge society’s presumption that male teachers have better relationships with boys than women teachers. Vrouwelijke leerkrachten in het basisonderwijs hebben een betere relatie met jongens dan mannelijke leerkrachten. Dit blijkt uit onderzoek van wetenschappers van de Universiteit van Amsterdam en de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. De resultaten zijn onlangs gepubliceerd in het Journal of School Psychology. ispartof: Journal of School Psychology vol:50 issue:3 pages:363-378 ispartof: location:United States status: published

De leraar-leerlingrelatie speelt een belangrijke rol in de schoolse aanpassing van kinderen. In het diagnostische proces is dan ook behoefte aan instrumenten ter objectivering van de kwaliteit van leraar-leerlingrelaties. Het Leerkracht Relatie Interview (lri) verschaft inzicht in de opvattingen en gevoelens van leerkrachten betreffende hun relatie met een specifieke leerling. Onderzoek in Nederlandse kleuterklassen laat zien dat leerkrachten meer boosheid en hulpeloosheid ervaren in relaties met kinderen met externaliserend gedrag. Naarmate de gedragsproblematiek ernstiger wordt, blijken leerkrachten bovendien minder positieve gevoelens te ontlenen aan de relatie en meer moeite te hebben met het afstemmen van hun pedagogisch handelen op de specifieke behoeften van leerlingen. De bevindingen ondersteunen de waarde van het lri voor de praktijk. Er wordt uiteengezet hoe het lri kan bijdragen aan handelingsgerichte diagnostiek.

The psychometric qualities of two instruments that measure children's perceptions of teacher-child relationships were evaluated in a sample of kindergartners (N= 150): The Young Children's Appraisals of Teacher Support (Y-CATS) and the Kindergartner-Teacher Interaction Computer (KLIC) test. On the Y-CATS, children judged propositions on a dichotomous response format. On the KLIC, children evaluated pictures according to a two-step response procedure to obtain a 4-point scale. Furthermore, these instruments were employed to explore gender differences in the associations between the teacher-child relationship and indices of maladaptive behavior. Teachers completed measures of relationship quality and children's behavior problems. A three-dimensional structure of the Y-CATS (Warmth, Conflict, and Autonomy Support) was found, whereas the KLIC's structure was unidimensional. The KLIC showed high reliability but stronger evidence was obtained for the validity of the Y-CATS. Consistent with attachment-based research, the results indicated that children display gender-typical problem behavior when having non-close teacher-child relationships. © 2010 Elsevier Inc. ispartof: Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology vol:31 issue:6 pages:428-438 status: published

A confirmatory factor analytic study was conducted to obtain evidence for physical aggression as a distinct construct of nonaggressive antisocial behavior in young children. Second, the authors investigated factorial invariance across gender. Teachers completed the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) for two independent samples of kindergartners (N = 487; N = 1,557). Behavior items were selected representing physically aggressive versus nonaggressive antisocial behavior. To obtain support for the two-factor model, the authors also examined associations with subtypes of internalizing behavior. Confirmatory factor analyses confirmed that physical aggression constitutes a distinct construct from nonaggressive antisocial behavior for young children. In support of the model, differential associations with internalizing behavior and different outcomes with respect to gender differences were found. Factorial noninvariance across gender was found for physical aggression, and explanations for those gender differences are discussed. © 2010 SAGE Publications. ispartof: Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment vol:28 issue:2 pages:129-138 status: published

Background Children with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) have serious socio-behavioral problems and often rely on socially abnormal, aggressive, and manipulative forms of communication. Little is known, however, about the influence of teachers on the socio-behavioral development of children with symptoms of RAD. Aims This longitudinal study examined the influence of teacher sensitivity on the socio-behavioral development of children with symptoms of RAD across one school year. Method The sample included 85 Belgian children and 70 teachers from special education schools. In the previous school year, teachers rated Inhibited and Disinhibited RAD symptoms. In the next school year, teacher Sensitivity was observed in interactions with individual children in the first trimester. Teacher-rated Overt aggression, Relational aggression, and Prosocial behavior was assessed in the first, second, and third trimester. Results We found no effects of Sensitivity on Prosocial behavior. Also, no effects were found for children with Disinhibited RAD symptoms. For children with Inhibited RAD symptoms, increases in Overt and Relational aggression were observed when Sensitivity was low, whereas decreases were observed when Sensitivity was high. Conclusions and implications The results suggest that teacher sensitivity is associated with the socio-behavioral development of children with Inhibited RAD symptoms but not with the socio-behavioral development of children with Disinhibited RAD symptoms. What this paper adds Children with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) exhibit socio-behavioral problems that hinder their school adjustment. These socio-behavioral problems appear relatively stable and it is not known what influence special education teachers might have on the development of these problems across a school year. This study suggests that teacher sensitivity is associated with changes in the socio-behavioral development of children with Inhibited RAD symptoms. Whereas high sensitivity was associated with improvements, low sensitivity appeared to exaggerate the socio-behavioral problems of these children. As children with Inhibited RAD symptoms have difficulties communicating their needs and wishes in socially adaptive ways, it may not be easy for teachers to understand these children. Teachers may misinterpret a child’s behavior and consequently will fail to respond to the child’s underlying needs. This may reinforce the child’s socio-behavioral problems and increase the child’s reliance on egocentric and aggressive means in interactions with others. This study therefore highlights the need to support teachers in interactions with children with Inhibited RAD symptoms in order to help them understand how the children’s observable behaviors in the classroom may convey their underlying socio-emotional needs and how they can respond to these needs. Importantly, teacher sensitivity was not associated with the socio-behavioral development of children with Disinhibited RAD symptoms (e.g., indiscriminate friendliness). Consistent with previous research, this study suggests that children with Inhibited RAD symptoms are more susceptible to the quality of the caregiving environment than children with Disinhibited RAD symptoms and extends this finding to the school context. ispartof: Research in Developmental Disabilities vol:56 pages:71-82 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have a high degree of heritability, but there is still much debate about specific causal genes and pathways. To gain insight into patterns of transmission, research has focused on the relatedness of quantitative autism traits (QAT) between family members, mostly using questionnaires. Yet, different kinds of bias may influence research results. In this paper, we focus on possible informant effects and, taking these into account, on possible intergenerational transmission of QAT. This study used multiple informant data retrieved via the Social Responsiveness Scale from 170 families with at least one member with ASD. Using intraclass correlations (ICCs) and mixed model analyses, we investigated inter-informant agreement and differences between parent and teacher reports on children and between self- and other-reports on adults. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we investigated the relatedness of QAT between family members in ASD families. Parent-teacher agreement about social responsiveness was poor, especially for children with ASD, though agreement between parents was moderate to strong for affected and unaffected children. Agreement between self- and other-report in adult men was good, but only moderate in women. Agreement did not differ between adults with and without ASD. While accounting for informant effects, our SEM results corroborated the assortative mating theory and the intergenerational transmission of QAT from both fathers and mothers to their offspring.

Background: Gifted children learn differently compared to their peers in several ways. However, their educational needs are often not met in regular schools, which may result in underachievement and social-emotional and behavioral problems. A pullout program, the "Day a Week School" (DWS), was offered to gifted children in 25 elementary schools from neighborhoods of higher and lower SES in Amsterdam. Objective: To investigate whether DWS decreases children's social-emotional and behavior problems and parents' stress, and improves children's self-concept, enjoyment at school, and academic achievement. Methods: Gifted children (grades 3-5) were selected through a standardized identification procedure assessing "out-of-the box", logical, and creative thinking and motivation (n = 89). Children, as well as both their parents and teachers, completed questionnaires before the start of DWS and after 2,5 months. Results were analyzed for all children and for at-risk children with higher levels of psychopathology before starting DWS. Results: Analyses on the total group showed small positive effects on children's self-reported self-concept dimensions, scholastic competence and behavioral conduct, as well as on fathers' reported child prosocial behavior. In the at-risk group, children reported medium positive effects on scholastic competence and behavioral conduct, and on sleep problems and worry, and small improvements on enjoyment at school. Parents of at-risk children reported decreased child's somatic complaints and decreased social-emotional and behavioral problems. Finally, teachers reported higher academic achievement and medium positive effects on inattention-hyperactivity in the at-risk group. Conclusions: Day a Week School appears to be a promising pullout program for gifted children, particularly for children at-risk for psychopathology. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.

This study examined subgroup differences in the effectiveness of a universal classroom-based preventive intervention. The Good Behavior Game (GBG) was delivered in Grade 1 and 2 in a randomized controlled trial including 759 students. Changes in externalizing and internalizing problems were modeled from Kindergarten through Grade 2. Unlike previous research, a person-centered approach was employed to examine critical combinations of child, peer, family, and demographic characteristics at baseline as moderators of intervention impact. Six subgroups were identified that differed both in baseline risk profiles and intervention responsiveness. The GBG prevented the development of externalizing and internalizing behavior among low-risk children, children with emotional problems, and victimized children. No positive intervention effects were found for children from dysfunctional families and children with combinations of behavioral and social risks. The study presented a novel approach to study subgroup differences in universal preventive interventions and provides first evidence that universal school-based programs may not be effective for children with more severe risks and risks at multiple levels. ‘Taakspel’ is één van de weinige wetenschappelijk getoetste schoolprogramma’s om gedragsproblemen en emotionele problemen bij kinderen in Nederland te voorkomen. Dit programma voor klassenmanagement gebruiken veel basisscholen veel om taakgericht gedrag te bevorderen waarbij kinderen leren zich beter aan klassenregels houden. Het is het enige schoolpreventieprogramma dat door het Nederlands Jeugd Instituut als bewezen effectief is beoordeeld. Nieuwe resultaten laten zien dat Taakspel inderdaad effectief is, maar alleen bij bepaalde groepen kinderen en niet of onvoldoende bij kinderen met serieuze gedragsproblemen. Dit blijkt uit het onderzoek van Jantine Spilt van de Faculteit der Psychologie en Pedagogische Wetenschappen van de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Het onderzoek is gepubliceerd in Prevention Science. ispartof: Prevention Science vol:14 issue:5 pages:479-488 ispartof: location:United States status: published

Researchers increasingly consider teacher-child relationships in kindergarten as an important indicator of school readiness that forecasts children’s future school success (Ladd, Herald, & Kochel, 2006; Mashburn & Pianta, 2006). Especially teacher-child conflict contributes to future socioemotional difficulties and academic underachievement (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Ladd & Burgess, 1999) and, importantly, predicts children’s adjustment beyond children’s behavioural risk status (Ladd & Burgess, 2001; Stipek & Miles, 2008).

A meta-analytic approach was used to investigate the associations between affective qualities of teacher–student relationships (TSRs) and students’ school engagement and achievement. Results were based on 99 studies, including students from preschool to high school. Separate analyses were conducted for positive relationships and engagement ( k = 61 studies, N = 88,417 students), negative relationships and engagement ( k = 18, N = 5,847), positive relationships and achievement ( k = 61, N = 52,718), and negative relationships and achievement ( k = 28, N = 18,944). Overall, associations of both positive and negative relationships with engagement were medium to large, whereas associations with achievement were small to medium. Some of these associations were weaker, but still statistically significant, after correction for methodological biases. Overall, stronger effects were found in the higher grades. Nevertheless, the effects of negative relationships were stronger in primary than in secondary school.

The distinctiveness of physical aggression from other antisocial behavior is widely accepted but little research has explicitly focused on young children to empirically test this assumption. A Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix (MTMM) approach was employed to confirm the distinctiveness of physical aggression from nonaggressive antisocial behavior in early childhood. In addition, the convergent validity of teacher reports of physical aggression was investigated on a measure that contained age-appropriate behavior items selected from the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ). Assessments of physical aggression versus nonaggressive antisocial behavior of 117 kindergartners with different behavior profiles were obtained using three measures varying in source and/or method: (a) teacher reports on the PBQ, (b) short interviews with teachers, and (c) classroom observations. The MTMM matrix was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results provided reasonable support for the discrimination between physical aggression and nonaggressive antisocial behavior. In addition, strong support was found for the convergent validity of teacher-reported physical aggression using PBQ items. © 2011 SAGE Publications. ispartof: Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment vol:29 issue:5 pages:407-417 status: published

The goal of the present study was to obtain evidence for the validity of the Teacher Relationship Interview by exploring associations with a well-validated measure of teacher-child relationship quality, the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (Closeness, Conflict, and Dependency), and examining differences between teachers' narratives about the relationship with a disruptive and a nondisruptive child in their class. Six constructs were derived from teachers' narratives (N = 90) that were elicited with the Teacher Relationship Interview: sensitive practices, positive affect, helplessness, anger, neutralizing negative affect, and coherence. Multilevel analyses showed moderate convergence between the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale and the Teacher Relationship Interview. Expressed anger was related to relational conflict, whereas positive affect and low levels of helplessness appeared associated with close relationships. The coherence of the narrative and the tendency to neutralize negative emotions were positively associated with conflict. No unique associations were found with teachers' narrated sensitive practices. Furthermore, anger and helplessness appeared more prominent in narratives about relationships with disruptive children. © 2009 by the National Association of School Psychologists. ispartof: School Psychology Review vol:38 issue:1 pages:86-101 status: published

Many studies have examined the importance of teacher–student relationships for the development of children. Much less is known, however, about how these relationships impact the professional and personal lives of teachers. This review considers the importance of teacher–student relationships for the wellbeing of teachers starting from the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping of Lazarus (1991). Based on theories on interpersonal relationships, it is postulated that teachers have a basic need for relatedness with the students in their class. It is discussed that teachers internalize experiences with students in representational models of relationships that guide emotional responses in daily interactions with students and change teacher wellbeing in the long run. In addition, the notion of mental representations of relationships at different levels of generalization could offer a window to understand how individual teacher–student relationships may affect the professional and personal self-esteem of teachers. Lastly, it is argued that the influence of student misbehavior on teacher stress may be more fully understood from a relationship perspective. The review shows that few studies have directly tested these propositions and offers suggestions for future research. ispartof: Educational Psychology Review vol:23 issue:4 pages:457-477 status: published