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This study uses Trivers-Willard hypothesis to explain the differences in daughters’ and sons’ educational outcomes by parental background. According to the Trivers-Willard hypothesis (TWH), parental support and investments for sons and daughters display an asymmetrical relationship according to parental status because of the different reproductive advantage of the sexes. It predicts that high-status parents support sons more than daughters, and low-status parents support daughters more than sons. In modern societies, where education is the most important mediator of status, the TW hypothesis predicts that sons from high-status families will achieve higher educational outcomes than daughters. Using cohorts born between 1987 and 1997 from the reliable full population Finnish register data that contain the data of over 600.000 individuals, children’s educational outcomes were measured using data on school dropout rate, academic grade point average (GPA), and general secondary enrollment in their adolescence. OLS and sibling fixed-effect regression that permitted an examination of opposite-sex siblings’ educational outcomes within the same family were applied. Sons with high family income and parental education, compared to daughters of the same family, have lower probability of dropping out of school and are more likely to enroll into academic secondary school track. In families with low parental education or income daughters have lower probability for school dropout and enroll more likely to academic school track related to sons of the same family. The effect of family background by sex can be interpreted to support TWH in dropout and academic school track enrollment but not in GPA.

Purpose This study aims to determine how sustainable development (SD) demands (according to the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s (UNECE) SD themes from 2005) are connected to the contents of education, research, development and innovation (RDI) in higher education institutions (HEI). Education and the RDI nexus may affect HEI’s capability to handle SD-related wicked problems and enhance their societal impact. Design/methodology/approach This paper examined SD-oriented curricula contents of two universities (Brazil and Finland) and counted the number of SD-related research outcomes. In addition, conceptual modelling was used to analyse the mechanisms that may be directing HEIs’ SD work in local innovation. Findings The data showed a convergence deviation in the RDI of SD-related subjects between the two HEIs. There was no correlation between SD-oriented education and RDI-work in either HEI. Education and RDI processes have different UNECE SD themes at the focal point, and the education-research nexus is lacking. This difference indicates that new SD-related knowledge produced through RDI was not effectively used in education. Modelling revealed that the convergence in RDI outcomes arose from the same kind of local business, industry and societal challenges, implementing effective stakeholder pressures into HEIs. The results may indicate that stakeholder SD needs were not directly transferred into the competence qualification of the curriculum. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first quantitative study to reveal the independence of universities’ SD-related RDI subjects on educational curricula.

This article studies the supervisory role of the Finnish Parliamentary Ombudsman during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. A major legal problem during emergencies is that respect for the rule of law tends to get lost in the midst of rapid decision-making procedures. Therefore, in addition to the parliamentary control and the judicial review of courts, the Ombudsman finds a complementary position in supervising the legality of public actions during emergencies. The annual report of the Finnish Parliamentary Ombudsman shows that 931 complaints arrived this Office in 2020, concerning issues on the COVID-19 pandemic. These cases have tested public actions against the Finnish Constitution and other laws during the pandemic. To analyse the legal supervisory role of the Ombudsman during this period, we have selected three themes including restrictions on the freedom of movement, imposing visit bans on care centres, and limiting business activities. This analysis exposes the nature of the COVID-19 pandemic as a societal syndemic, meaning that although the health-related aspect of this crisis prevailed initially, the use of public power may not only endanger the principle of legality, but also cause societal, economic, and political changes, which may last for years after the crisis.

Higher education institutes (HEIs) have made a deep commitment to prioritizing sustainable development (SD). Their task is to support practices that improve conditions in societies with respect to ecological, economic, and social issues, e.g., tackling the wicked problems of the world. In this case study, which took place at Feevale University (Feevale), Brazil, and at Hame University of Applied Sciences (HAMK), Finland, the following topics were studied: (1) whether there are international and national SD steering policies that might be relevant to higher education development in these particular universities; (2) whether this steering has impacted HEI's own SD policy and steering; (3) whether such in-house operations are affecting SD content within curricula; and (4) how a pedagogic approach influences the incidence of SD-oriented content at the bachelor's degree level. The analysis of policy level data was based on international and national policy papers recognized separately in both universities. As an indicator of the university's level of commitment to sustainability activities, we measured the incidence level of UNECE's SD themes in the curriculum. A hermeneutical approach was applied to the analysis to demonstrate possible systemic interactions between (inter)national SD policy and SD education at HEIs. At HAMK, some evidence was found of a national level top-down steering process in the university's SD activities. At Feevale, the enhancing of SD education is more of a bottom-up process. International steering appeared to be weak in both universities. The study uses unique quantitative data to show how the incidence of SD content in the curriculum is related to the pedagogical approach in each university [content (Feevale) vs. competence (HAMK)]. It was concluded that differences in national SD steering policy and pedagogical approach in the HEI led to divergent curricula structures in relation to the volume of the SD education between the two HEIs. Regardless of such a divergence, an appropriate balance between epistemic and ethical SD competences should be guaranteed for all bachelors.

Within Scandinavia, Sweden stands out for not having gone to war in over 200 years. Its neighboring states—Finland, Denmark, and Norway—have not been as fortunate. Their respective constitutions each provide insight into their different experiences. The Swedish Constitution remains silent on emergency situations that do not rise to the predefined level of “war.” The Finnish constitution differs from the Swedish in that it allows for time-limited restrictions to protect fundamental rights and freedoms during a state of emergency, aggression, or any other situation that poses a severe threat to the nation, if stipulated by law and in congruence with international obligations of Finland. Importantly, when and how a government can declare a state of emergency is a question of ordinary law, rather than a constitutional one. This Article offers a comparative constitutional law analysis of the relative constitutional silence in Sweden and Finland as concerns emergency powers. The analysis takes as its starting point Böckenförde'sThe Repressed State of Emergency: The Exercise of State Authority in Extraordinary Circumstances.

In Chapter 5, Janne Salminen, Senior Lecturer in law at the University of Turku, merges and builds upon the EMU and internal market analyses of Strupczewski, Lahti and Faull. Salminen shows how the crisis has been handled in many different ways, which illustrates the astounding ability of the EU’s legal framework to react to crises, often even without revising the Treaties. The law on economic and fiscal coordination as amended stretches however the constitutional limits of the Treaties. Where the Lisbon Treaty no longer is capable of offering the prerequisite legal basis, international agreements are used as the legal framework instead. This technique is evident both in the field of stabilization mechanisms and in the field of economic and fiscal governance. These developments lead in Salminen’s view nonetheless to issues of constitutionality, transparency and clarity. Institutionally speaking, the European Parliament’s limited role is problematic, while the Council and the European Council have taken a central role at the European Union level in actively seeking solutions to the crisis. Undoubtedly, the new means of economic and fiscal governance that the crisis has triggered have also strengthened the powers of the European executive, the Commission. The role of the European Central Bank has also been growing, sometimes in somewhat unconventional ways.

Economic crisis, constitutional crisis – Finnish constitutional requirements and solutions – National parliaments' European constitutional function – Finnish parliament's rights – Development of economic and monetary union – Economic and monetary union and development of it as the ‘Union matter’ in Finland – Stabilisation – European Financial Stability Facility – European Stability Mechanism – Economic governance – National, European, political, constitutional

During the past months the European Council agenda has been dominated by Europe's economic crisis, which combines elements of banking crisis in the euro area and individual Member States' debt crisis – and has turned into something of an existential crisis for the Union as a whole. Many questions concerning the Union's legitimacy have been raised in the context of the current debates pointing out how the role of democratic institutions has turned blurry while market pressure has been tackled in quickly developing institutional structures by taking fast decisions on major economic commitments involving a tightened belt both for those receiving the aid, and for those giving the necessary guarantees required by the creditors. As the crisis has evolved, these questions have become more or less fundamental in nature since they have increasingly encompassed the trust in the possibilities of the Union to manage the crisis through its own decision-making. But at the same time, crises also bring about potential for change.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms., Microorganisms are vital in mediating the earth's biogeochemical cycles; yet, despite our rapidly increasing ability to explore complex environmental microbial communities, the relationship between microbial community structure and ecosystem processes remains poorly understood. Here, we address a fundamental and unanswered question in microbial ecology: 'When do we need to understand microbial community structure to accurately predict function?' We present a statistical analysis investigating the value of environmental data and microbial community structure independently and in combination for explaining rates of carbon and nitrogen cycling processes within 82 global datasets. Environmental variables were the strongest predictors of process rates but left 44% of variation unexplained on average, suggesting the potential for microbial data to increase model accuracy. Although only 29% of our datasets were significantly improved by adding information on microbial community structure, we observed improvement in models of processes mediated by narrow phylogenetic guilds via functional gene data, and conversely, improvement in models of facultative microbial processes via community diversity metrics. Our results also suggest that microbial diversity can strengthen predictions of respiration rates beyond microbial biomass parameters, as 53% of models were improved by incorporating both sets of predictors compared to 35% by microbial biomass alone. Our analysis represents the first comprehensive analysis of research examining links between microbial community structure and ecosystem function. Taken together, our results indicate that a greater understanding of microbial communities informed by ecological principles may enhance our ability to predict ecosystem process rates relative to assessments based on environmental variables and microbial physiology.

This article concerns the Treaty of Lisbon and its impact on the development of the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice (AFSJ). The background of the study is the discussion of the so-called pillar structure of the European Union, its dismantling and the features of the constitution of the EU Justice and Home Affairs (JHA), which have legitimized its characterization as a special field of integration within the architecture of the Union. The depillarization is considered to be one of the main achievements of the Treaty of Lisbon. For this reason, the focus of the article is on the special features of integration in the AFSJ. It is noted that it would indeed be meaningless to characterize AFSJ as a separate field of integration. However, there still are remains of the features which made it possible to consider JHA and the third pillar as different. Pillars continue their life in certain aspects. The AFSJ mode of integration is still based on a rationale of cooperation. Certain possibilities for the differentiation indicate the same attitude. Another important point in the same direction is the status of the individual: for this part the constitution seems not to be primarily rights-based.

Soil faunal activity stimulates terrestrial carbon and nutrient cycling and maintains soil physical structure. Interestingly, the effects of faunal activity on soil microbial community composition and activity is less clear, although the microbial community evidently is the key element of terrestrial decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. We manipulated the composition of soil fauna in mesh bags with various mesh sizes (5, 45, and 1,000 µm) to exclude faunal groups based on body size. Our experiment indicated that feeding and foraging activity of nematodes and enchytraeids modified the physical–chemical properties of the soil and had long-term effects on soil bacterial community composition (measured by denaturing gel electrophoresis, colony-forming unit counts, and phospholipid fatty acid pattern). However, microbial enzyme (phosphomonoesterase, butyrate-esterase, s-glucosidase, N-acetyl-glucosamidase, and s-cellobiosidase) activities (measured by fluorogenic model substrates), decomposition rate of woody and cellulose material, or C and N status of the soil were not altered by the faunal treatment. Instead, enzyme activity was reduced by soil drying. Our results give support to ideas that functional redundancy is a common characteristic of the soil organisms, but no support was found for the idea that the community composition of soil decomposers had a strong link to the regulation of C and N cycles in the soil.

Most of the empirical evidence available from different types of ecosystems have shown that aboveground plant-based and belowground decomposer systems are interconnected, and change in one leads to a response in the other. We analyzed responses of the soil decomposer system and soil decomposition processes to grazing exclusion and associated vegetation changes in a mountain snowbed. These habitats are of low productivity supporting bryophyte and graminoid-rich vegetation which is grazed by the Norwegian lemming and reindeer. We measured bacteria, enchytraeids, fungi, nematodes, microbial respiration, soil nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate), and soil water content from exclosure treatment plots of 5 and 15 years, where the exclusion of grazers had led to considerable vegetation changes. Soil decomposer variables showed only weak responses to the exclosure treatments or changes in aboveground vegetation (biomass and dead organic matter). Only nematodes responded positively to the short-term grazing exclusion. This suggests that above- and belowground processes are not necessarily closely interconnected in snowbed habitats and that the decomposition of plant material is directly controlled by grazer activity.

This paper considers the effect of the recent EU measures relating to strengthened economic governance both at the EU level and the level of national (constitutional) law. We first explain the scope of EU competence in economic policy and its effects on Member State competence. We will then examine how this competence has been exercised during the past few years, in particular from the point of view of the domestic effects of the six-pack and two-pack, which constitute the ‘Belt’ needed to maintain stability in the euro area and thus hold the ‘trousers’ (economic policy decision-making) up. We then turn to the Fiscal Compact and the budgetary framework directive and their effects at national level, constituting the ‘Braces’ intended to ensure healthy national budgetary policies. The relevant question remains to be whether the current 'belt and braces' rules are the appropriate approach for preventing new crises. There are both legal and political reasons for reconsidering some of the solutions made during the crisis. Maybe the trousers are just too loose?

Environmental pollution by toxicants is generally believed to lead both to direct toxic effects and indirect effects via altered species interactions in a stressed community. We examined how contamination of a coniferous forest soil floor by lead (from an abandoned shooting range area) may alter trophic interactions and decomposition processes. We constructed laboratory microcosms containing microbial-based food webs with various trophic structures: microbes alone; microbes with microbivorous-detritivorous enchytraeid worms (Cognettia sphagnetorum, a potential keystone species of boreal forest soil); and microbes, worms, and predatory mites (Lysigamasus spp.) together. The direct toxic effect of lead and the effectiveness of the predators in preying upon the worms were studied in separate experiments. Polluted humic soil (acid-extractable lead concentration was 2,720 +/- 349 mg/kg of dry soil [mean +/- standard error]) was toxic to enchytraeids, and predators effectively reduced worm populations. Positive density-dependent effects of worms on microbes and a trophic cascade from predatory mites to microbes, observed in the unpolluted humus, were not observed in the polluted humus, indicating pollution-induced interaction modification among organisms. Concomitantly, lead pollution altered the process of nutrient mineralization in the humic soil. However, causality and relative importance of direct toxicity and indirect effects of lead on the dynamics of the decomposer food web could not be pointed out. Examination of our results indicates that traditional food web models are incapable of predicting mechanisms that alter dynamics of pollution-stressed belowground food webs.

We studied the life history, metal-avoidance behavior, spatial distribution, and population growth of enchytraeid worms (Cognettia sphagnetorum [Oligochaeta]) originating from two sites: one uncontaminated, and another patchily polluted by heavy metals. Effects of patchy soil contamination on populations were studied in microcosms. In uncontaminated soil, worms from the polluted site had lower viability and reduced growth rate as juveniles but higher growth rate as adults compared to worms from the unpolluted site. They were also smaller in size at fragmentation (reproduction). Worms from the polluted site reached a larger population size than worms from the unpolluted site. Hence, worms from the polluted site seemed to allocate more energy to reproduction, because such a strategy can be highly adaptive when living in a less-polluted patch (the source) in, on average, a highly polluted environment. The C. sphagnetorum actively avoided Cu-contaminated soil, with the response being stronger in individuals from the contaminated site. When an unpolluted patch (the source) was surrounded by a toxic environment (the sink), worms were found in the sink, either because intraspecific competition overrode the avoidance behavior or because of random walk migration. As a result, total population size in these microcosms were as high as those in totally uncontaminated microcosms. Our results indicate that avoidance behavior and increased allocation to reproduction, together with the observed dispersal pattern, can be an adaptive strategy for C. sphagnetorum in the presence of small, less-polluted patches in, on average, a hostile environment. Hence, sink-source population regulation can explain spatial distribution and survival of C. sphagnetorum in patchily polluted field soils. When such population dynamics occur, this pattern should be taken into account when population densities in the field are monitored for ecological risk-assessment procedures concerning toxicants.

Effects of Zn pollution on a keystone species of forest soils, the enchytraeid Cognettia sphagnetorum, and its consequent indirect effects on microbial biomass and activity were studied in a microcosm experiment using experimentally contaminated humic soil. Microbial growth and decomposition were enhanced in the presence of C. sphagnetorum. At high Zn concentrations (< 2,393 mg/kg dry soil), populations of C. sphagnetorum went extinct, resulting in negative indirect effects on microbial activity as measured by soil respiration. Results indicate that pollution may affect species interactions in a soil food web and indirectly affect ecosystem processes such as decomposition rate. Effects of pollution on keystone organisms may radically alter soil ecosystem functioning and should be taken into account during risk-assessment procedures.

We studied the presence of zinc tolerance in enchytraeid worm (Cognettia sphagnetorum, Oligochaeta) from a metal-polluted forest soil in The Netherlands. In a dose response experiment, we compared Zn sensitivity, measured as body growth and reproduction, of these enchytraeids with that of animals taken from three unpolluted sites. Because C. sphagnetorum is a keystone species, regulating microbial processes in coniferous forest soil, we performed a microcosm experiment to study the interaction of enchytraeids from several sites with soil microbes. The idea was to study whether there is a link between metal stress response of individuals (tolerance level, life history alteration) and changes observed at higher organization levels of the biological system (trophic interaction and decomposition processes). We did not find evidence for increased metal tolerance of C. sphagnetorum. Worms from the polluted site actually had reduced body growth, indicating negative fitness effects caused by long-lasting metal stress. The density and biomass of the worm population from the polluted site was low in Zn contaminated soil. Presence of enchytraeids enhanced and Zn contamination reduced the activity of microbes in the soil. Enchytraeids from different sites with different life histories and population development, however, had the same effect on microbes. Hence, observed stress responses of individuals and populations could not be linked to density-dependent trophic interactions and ecosystem functioning in the soil-decomposer food chain.

Pollution may lead to the development of pollution-induced community tolerance (PICT) in a stressed community. We studied the presence of PICT in soil food webs using soil microcosms. Soil microcosms containing soil invertebrates and microbes were collected from polluted and unpolluted areas and exposed to a range of soil zinc concentrations. A pine seedling was planted in each microcosm to measure the effects of the origin of the community and Zn pollution on above-ground plant production. The effects of the treatments on nutrient content in the soil were also measured. The diversity of soil microarthropods and the soil's mineral nutrient content were low at the Zn-polluted site. We did not observe an increasing Zn tolerance among the soil organisms in the polluted soil. However, low population growth rates of soil invertebrates from the polluted site may indicate the deleterious effects on fitness of long-lasting pollution. In the soil from the nonpolluted site, Zn additions caused changes in the invertebrate food web structure. These changes were explained by the good physiological condition of the animals and their insensitivity to Zn. The fact that the food web structure in soil from the polluted site did not change can be used as a rough indicator of PICT. Structural stability is presumed by the lack of Zn-sensitive species at this site and the inability of populations to acclimate by altering their growth or reproduction patterns in response to changing soil conditions. Although microbial-based soil decomposer systems may have a high functional redundancy, our results indicate that metal stress at the polluted site exceeds the tolerance limits of the system. As a consequence, ecosystem function at this site is endangered. This study also shows that the evolution of metal tolerance by soil decomposer organisms may not be a common reaction to soil pollution, although changes of population and community structure indicated severe metal stress on organisms.

We studied the horizontal distribution of Cu, Ni and enchytraeid worms (Cognettia sphagnetorum, Vejdovsky, Oligochaeta, Enchytraeidae) in forest soil near a Cu–Ni smelter in SW Finland. Soil samples were taken from a polluted site (2 km from the smelter) and a reference area (8 km from the smelter). We used a hierarchical sampling design in the polluted area for studying possible scale-dependent variability in parameters measured, distance between the samples (different scales) being 5, 50 and 500 cm. Distribution of metals was moderately heterogeneous in the polluted soil; coefficient of variances (CV), 26% for Cu and 32% for Ni. Instead, distribution of enchytraeids in the area was highly heterogeneous (CV, 135%) and the variability increased with increasing a distance between the samples: CV increased from 67 to 104% from the smallest to the largest sampling scale. Soil metal concentrations did not correlate with enchytraeid densities in the polluted area. However, three out of our four sampling plots having distance of 500 cm between each other had lower enchytraeid density than the reference area. Results may indicate that C. sphagnetorum has quite low sensitivity to metal pollution, at least on the forest stand scale. On the other hand, enchytraeids may have population dynamics connected to patches (sources–sinks) caused by uneven distribution of metals. This can mitigate the effects of metals on their population densities. Due to importance of enchytraeids in decomposition processes and the fact that usually only one enchytraeid species is present in boreal coniferous forests, they may be appropriate for field monitoring in these humus rich soils. ©

The combined effects of contamination by pentachlorophenol (PCP) and acid precipitation on soil decomposer communities and decomposition processes were studied. Intact soil cores were taken from a coniferous forest in central Finland, enclosed in plastic tube microcosms and dug into the ground. The total set of microcosms was divided in four treatments: (1) contamination with PCP, (2) PCP and two irrigations with strong acid solution, (3) PCP and five irrigations with weak acid solution, and (4) control: irrigations with deionized water. The applications began 8 weeks after initial burial and were completed over a further period of 9 weeks. The microcosms were sampled after 18, 51 and 59 weeks. Soil pH did not decrease consistently with acid deposition. PCP concentrations were not affected by acid deposition. All acid and/or PCP-treated soils contained more NH + 4 –N than the control soil at the first and second samplings, but there were no differences at the last sampling. There were more enchytraeids in the controls than in other treatments from the second sampling date onwards, that is, after the winter. Collembolan population density was not affected by the treatments while numbers of oribatid, prostigmatid and astigmatid mites were reduced in the stressed soils, but only on the first sampling date. Most of the observed effects on decomposers and nitrogen mineralization were attributable to PCP, but acid deposition may also have been involved through possible effects on the bioavailability of PCP. The imposed anthropogenic stresses, together with winter conditions, were detrimental for enchytraeids. By the end of the experiment decomposer communities together with mosses had mainly recovered.

Regulation of soil decomposer community structure and ecosystem processes, such as nutrient cycling, under herbicide stress was studied in a microcosm experiment. For the experiment, coniferous forest soil was defaunated and put into the microcosms. In the microcosms two different food webs including microbes, nematodes, tardigrades and oribatid mites, either with or without predatory mesostigmatid mites, were reconstructed. Half of the microcosms were stressed with a herbicide (active ingredient was terbuthylazine). During the 57 weeks incubation community structure of decomposers and nitrogen mineralisation were studied at five destructive samplings and two water irrigations. Soil respiration was measured weekly starting at week 26. Mesostigmatid mites regulated densities of some prey species and hence they had an effect on the community structure of microbivores. A trophic cascade from predators to microbes took place both in unstressed and stressed soils: microbial activity decreased in the presence of predators. Predation effect was observed more clearly in the unstressed soil although predators maintained their populations longer in the herbicide stressed soil. Predators had no significant effects on N mineralisation while herbicide increased it. Oribatids were reduced by the herbicide at the later phase of the experiment. It can be concluded that decomposer food webs and decomposition in the soil can partly be top-down controlled. Due to a high degree of omnivory it was impossible to determine precisely the trophic structure of the food web. Herbicide contamination altered the community regulation and ecosystem processes via direct toxicity and by affecting trophic interactions. Although the application of food web analysis in risk assessment procedures has been proved to be problematic, there is a clear need for system level studies because of the chemical-induced indirect effects on the food webs.

Distribution of soil animals with respect to patchy chemical contamination was studied in microcosms containing reconstituted coniferous forest floor. Soil materials were defaunated and soil organisms were reinoculated into a mesh basket in the centre of each microcosm. Part of the humus layer was contaminated with three concentrations of sodiumpentachlorophenate (0, 50 or 500 mg PCP kg −1 of dry humus) and put into mesh baskets (two per concentration) around the central patch. No differences in dispersion ability from the reinoculated patch were found between microarthropod species. PCP decreased microbial biomass in the humus. Numbers of collembolans were significantly lower in the contaminated patches than in the clean ones. The same trend was observed in the numbers of other microarthropods (mainly oribatid mites). Microarthropods were found to move intensively in the microcosm and taxa composition in the patches were different between samplings. Although PCP reduced numbers of individuals it did not affect diversity of the microarthropod community. Enchytraeids moved slowly from the central patch and number of individuals was lower in the most contaminated patches than in the other patches. Specimens of Rhabditis spp. were the first nematodes found in the surrounding patches. Later on other bacterial feeding nematodes were dominant in the patches. Species of genus Acrobeloides were dominant nematodes in the highest PCP concentration. It can be concluded that despite relatively good mobility of the soil animals, even small scale patchy contamination in the soil may have an influence on spatial distribution of the animals.

Changes in the structure and function of a soil decomposer community and growth of birch (Betula pendula) due to chemical contamination were studied in laboratory microcosms. Sodium pentachlorophenate (PCP) was added to the humus layer of a simulated forest soil at three nominal concentrations (0, 50 and 500 mg kg-1 dry mass). After two growing periods (48 weeks), there were more small soft-bodied mites, but less collembolans and microbial biomass, in the higher PCP concentration treatment than in the other treatments. Number of enchytraeids were significantly reduced and fungal-feeding nematodes became extinct in the soil with the higher PCP concentration. Soil respiration did not change due to PCP contamination. Diversity of soil fauna tended to decrease with increasing PCP concentration. Number of faunal taxa were not influenced by PCP. Mainly due to reduction of enchytraeids, total animal biomass was significantly lower in the higher PCP concentration treatment than in the other treatments. At week 8, leaching of nutrients was greatest in the higher PCP concentration treatment. At the end of the experiment no significant changes in soil pH and NH inf4 sup+ -N content of the soil were found. Birch growth and N concentration of the leaves were reduced with the higher PCP concentration. We assume that direct toxicity of PCP at the beginning of the experiment and changes in the decomposer community structure (mainly reduction of enchytracids and changes in microflora) due to PCP were responsible for the lowered primary production in the systems.

Acute lethal and sublethal effects of terbuthylazine and the commercial herbicide preparation Gardoprim [terbuthylazine is the active ingredient (a.i.)] on soil organisms (microbes, oppioid mites, two gamasid mite species, enchytraeids, and nematodes) were studied. In the humus soil terbuthylazine had no toxic effects on soil animals tested. However, the herbicide preparation had acute toxic effects on enchytraeids [no-observed-effect level (NOEL) 1.0 g a.i./m 2 ] and both gamasid mites (NOEL 2.4 and 5.0 g a.i./m 2 ). According to filter paper test, the LC 50 value for oppioid mites was 14.5 g a.i./m 2 . In the humus soil the commercial preparation caused no dose-related mortality in Oppioidea. The preparation was more toxic to gamasid mites when the herbicide was applied on the soil surface compared to the treatment in which the chemical was mixed into the humus. Application method of the chemical did not affect the mortality of enchytraeids. In the multispecies experiment, the number of nematodes was higher in the highest concentration of the commercial preparation (50 g a.i./m 2 ) compared to the lowest concentration (1 g a.i./m 2 ) and the clean soil. The amount of NH + 4 –N in the humus tended to increase with increasing herbicide concentration. The herbicide did not affect soil respiration, microbial biomass, or water content of the humus. These results indicated that herbicides can have direct effects on soil fauna. Due to species-specific foraging strategies or different exposure routes and rates to animals, effects of herbicides on soil animals varied considerably. Single-species toxicity tests performed in humus soil were more sensitive to the effects of herbicide than ecologically relatively short-term multispecies test.

One important group of metabolites of chlorophenols in Finnish soils is their methylation products, i.e. chloroanisoles. Bioaccumulation of chloroanisoles into the biomass of earthworms was studied both in laboratory and by taking earthworm samples from contaminated soils. Concentrations of these compounds in the soils were also analysed. In the laboratory experiment, concentrations of 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole (2346-TeCA) and pentachloroanisole (PeCA) were high in earthworms 1 week after introduction (approx. 50 μ/g fat). Later on, the concentrations decreased to a low level at a considerable rate, bcth in soil and in earthworms. The higher the concentration of chloroanisoles in the soil was, the higher was the microbial activity measured as production of carbon dioxide. Demethylation of chloroanisoles back to corresponding chlorophenols was observed. In the field samples taken from an area of a sawmill which had been closed nearly 30 years before, concentrations of TeCA and PeCA in the soil varied from 0.01 to 1 μg/g (dry mass). Chloroanisole concentrations in the tissues of earthworms varied from 0.04 to 0.24 μg/g fat. In Aporrectodea caliginosa tuberculata, which ingest large amounts of soil, higher concentrations were found than in Lumbricus species, which feed on leaf litter from the soil surface.

Bioaccumulation of chlorophenolic wood preservatives 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol (2346-TeCP) and pentachlorophenol (PeCP) and their metabolites in earthworms were studied in the laboratory, and by taking worm samples from the contaminated soil of a sawmill which was abandoned 28 yr ago. In two laboratory experiments 2346-TeCP (containing PeCP as impurity) was added into the soil, and samples were taken at certain intervals both from the soil and the earthworms ( Lumbricus rubellus in experiment 1 and Aporrectodea caliginosa tuberculata in experiment 2). Considerable amounts of chlorophenols were found in field samples. Soil concentrations ranged from 157 to 338 μg 2346-TeCP g −1 dry soil and from 103 to 140μg PeCP g −1 dry soil. Earthworm concentrations ranged from 270 to 2000 μg 2346-TeCP g −1 fat and from 130 to 1500μg PeCP g −1 fat, respectively. Earthworms also contained chlorinated anisoles (1–20 μg g −1 fat). On the other hand, chlorinated dihydroxybenzenes were not detected in earthworms, while these substances were present in the soil. Concentrations of chlorophenols were higher in A. caliginosa than in Lumbricus spp. In the pot experiments concentrations of chlorophenols in earthworms increased sharply during the experiments, and concentrations as high as 1800 μg g −1 fat were detected after some weeks incubation (in experiment 1, 61 μg chlorophenols g −1 dry soil, and in experiment 2, 154μg chlorophenols g −1 dry soil, was added). The earthworms had no influence on the concentrations of chlorophenols in the soil.

Soil samples and earthworms collected from one noncleaned and two cleaned sawmill environments were analysed for their content of chlorinated anisoles (methoxybenzenes), veratroles (1,2-dimethoxybenzenes) and 1,4-dimethoxybenzenes. 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole and pentachloroanisole were observed in all soil samples studied, in maximum combined amount about 1.5 μg/g dry soil. Small amounts (ca. 1–110 ng/g dry mass) of 3,4,5-trichloroveratrole, tetrachloroveratrole and tetrachloro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene were found in the most polluted soil samples. Only 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole and pentachloroanisole were found in earthworms, where concentrations of each were ca. 0.1–20 μg/g fat. In general, the concentration of pentachloroanisole was higher than that of 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole in earthworms.

Topsoil and earthworm samples collected from three Finnish sawmill environments were analysed for polychlorinated phenols, 2,3,4,6-tetrachloro- and pentachlorophenol, and their metabolites. Analyses were carried out by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using a selected ion monitoring technique and by dual-channel gas chromatography using quartz capillary columns and two electron capture detectors. The total chlorophenol concentrations ranged from ca. 260 to 480 μg/g (dry weight) in soil and from ca. 140 to 3500 μg/g fat in earthworms. The most important metabolites in soil were chlorinated dihydroxy-benzenes (also at ppm level); only traces of chlorinated anisoles were detected in soil. 2,3,4,6-Tetrachloroanisole and pentachloroanisole were found at ppm level in fat of earthworms.

Soil respiration from microcosms contaminated with pentachlorophenol, 2-ethanolhexanoate, creosote, CuSO4, and benomyl was measured in order to evaluate usefulness of soil microcosms and microbial respiration rate monitoring as a toxicity test in soils with high organic matter content. Coniferous forest soil and its organisms were used as test objects. In addition, how a short-term low temperature period including frost affects respiration dynamics in stressed soils was studied, i.e., whether contaminants reduce resistance of the community to other (also natural) stresses. In addition, at the end of the experiment, effects of contaminants on faunal and microbial community structures were analyzed. Soil respiration measurements from the microcosms appeared to be a sensitive parameter for testing community-level effects of chemicals in the soil with high organic matter content. An 84-day exposure had acute effects, long-term effects, delaying effects, and total recovery of community respiration. Direct negative and indirect positive effects of chemical contamination on the community of soil organisms were found. Responses to contamination of soil respiration rate and structure of the soil community were parallel. Addition of pentachlorophenol, 2-ethanolhexane, and Cu into the soil reduced frost resistance of the decomposer community. It was concluded that soil respiration monitoring of artificially contaminated soil microcosms seems to be a useful tool for testing community-level toxic effects of chemicals.

We studied the life history, metal-avoidance behavior, spatial distribution, and population growth of enchytraeid worms (Cognettia sphagnetorum [Oligochaeta]) originating from two sites: one uncontaminated, and another patchily polluted by heavy metals. Effects of patchy soil contamination on populations were studied in microcosms. In uncontaminated soil, worms from the polluted site had lower viability and reduced growth rate as juveniles but higher growth rate as adults compared to worms from the unpolluted site. They were also smaller in size at fragmentation (reproduction). Worms from the polluted site reached a larger population size than worms from the unpolluted site. Hence, worms from the polluted site seemed to allocate more energy to reproduction, because such a strategy can be highly adaptive when living in a less-polluted patch (the source) in, on average, a highly polluted environment. The C. sphagnetorum actively avoided Cu-contaminated soil, with the response being stronger in individuals from the contaminated site. When an unpolluted patch (the source) was surrounded by a toxic environment (the sink), worms were found in the sink, either because intraspecific competition overrode the avoidance behavior or because of random walk migration. As a result, total population size in these microcosms were as high as those in totally uncontaminated microcosms. Our results indicate that avoidance behavior and increased allocation to reproduction, together with the observed dispersal pattern, can be an adaptive strategy for C. sphagnetorum in the presence of small, less-polluted patches in, on average, a hostile environment. Hence, sink-source population regulation can explain spatial distribution and survival of C. sphagnetorum in patchily polluted field soils. When such population dynamics occur, this pattern should be taken into account when population densities in the field are monitored for ecological risk-assessment procedures concerning toxicants.

Effects of patchy soil contamination on decomposer organisms, their community regulation and nutrient mineralization were studied in a microcosm experiment. Coniferous forest soil was patchily contaminated with three concentrations of sodiumpentachlorophenate PCP (0, 50 and 500 mg PCP kg−1 of dry soil). Abundance of microbes, enchytraeids, nematodes, small oribatids and predatory mites were reduced by the PCP. Direct toxicity of PCP and lowered microbial biomass seemed to affect animal community composition in the most contaminated patches. Some large oribatids which seemed to be tolerant to PCP increased their numbers in the most contaminated patches. Although predatory mites suffered from PCP, no altered predator-prey interactions were observed. At the beginning of the experiment more nutrients were released in the patches with highest PCP concentration and the nutrients accumulated in the soil. Soil decomposer food webs seemed to be mainly bottom-up controlled: PCP strongly affects microbes and hence caused changes in the community structure of soil animals and nutrient cycling. Hence top-down orientated ecological models on community regulation and food web dynamics seem to be unsuitable when assessing effects of pesticides on soil communities.

1. In order to find a more reliable basis for ecotoxicological risk assessment, two microcosm experiments, one in the laboratory and another in the field (lysimeters), were performed using pentachlorophenol (PCP) as a model contaminant. PCP was applied at three (0, 50 and 500 μg g -1 dry soil in the laboratory experiment) or at two (0 and 50 μg g -1 in the lysimeters) concentrations in raw humus forest soil and its effects on soil organisms and decomposition processes were monitored. Soil fauna was manipulated at two levels in the laboratory experiment: simple and diverse communities. 2. PCP was strongly adsorbed onto the humus. 3. Microbes, nematodes, enchytraeids and predatory gamasid mites were sensitive to PCP in the laboratory experiment. 4. No significant faunal effects were observed on carbon and nutrient mineralization. At the highest PCP concentration carbon liberation (CO 2 -evolution) was lowered and NH 4 + -N was accumulated in the soil. PCP contamination indirectly affected soil pH and water content of the organic soil layer. 5. In the lysimeters, after 15 weeks there were fewer enchytraeids and prostigmatid mites in the soil contaminated with PCP, but no changes in nitrogen mobilization were observed. After 49 weeks, however, there was less NH 4 + -N in the contaminated soil, while no differences in faunal composition were found. 6. The results showed that, in comparison with single-species toxicity tests, more ecologically relevant microcosm experiments give important information about the behaviour of the decomposition system under contamination. This information, including also indirect impacts of chemicals, may be useful for the improvement of ecotoxicological risk assessment.