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The proteomic analysis of hairs, yarns or textiles has emerged as a powerful method to determine species of origin, mainly used in archaeozoological research and fraud control. Differentiation between the South American camelid (SAC) species (the wild guanaco and vicuna and their respective domesticates the llama and alpaca) is particularly challenging due to poor database information and significant hybridization between species. In this study, we analysed 41 modern and 4 archaeological samples from the four SACs species. Despite strong similarities with Old World Camelidae, we identified 7 peptides specific to SACs assigned to keratin K86 and the keratin-associated proteins KAP13-1 and KAP11-1. Untargeted multivariate analysis of the LC-MS data permitted to distinguish SAC species and propose discriminant features. MS/MS-based molecular networking combined with database-assisted de novo sequencing permitted to identify 5 new taxonomic peptides assigned to K33a, K81 and/or K83 keratins and KAP19-1. These peptides differentiate the two wild species, guanaco and vicuna. These results show the value of combining database search and untargeted metabolomic approaches for paleoproteomics, and reveal for the first time the potential of molecular networks to highlight deamidation related to diagenesis and cluster highly similar peptides related to interchain homologies or intra- or inter-specific polymorphism. SIGNIFICANCE: This study used an innovative approach combining multivariate analysis of LC-MS data together with molecular networking and database-assisted de novo sequencing to identify taxonomic peptides in palaeoproteomics. It constitutes the first attempt to differentiate between hair fibres from the four South American camelids (SACs) based on proteomic analysis of modern and archaeological samples. It provides different proteomic signatures for each of the four SAC species and proposes new SAC taxonomic peptides of interest in archaeozoology and fraud control. SACs have been extensively exploited since human colonization of South America but have not been studied to the extent of their economic, cultural and heritage importance. Applied to the analysis of ancient Andean textiles, our results should permit a better understanding of cultural and pastoral practices in South America. The wild SACs are endangered by poaching and black-market sale of their fibre. For the first time, our results provide discriminant features for the determination of species of origin of contraband fibre.

Ensuring the conservation of wild relatives of domesticated animals that are important food sources for humans forms part of targets for both the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). There is, however, no indicator allowing progress toward these aims to be measured. We identified 30 domesticated mammal and bird taxa that are sources of food for humans and consider 55 mammal and 449 bird species to be their wild relatives. We developed a Red List Index for these wild relatives, which declined by 2.02% between 1988 and 2016. Currently, 15 species are Critically Endangered, indicating that the Red List Index could deteriorate sharply unless action is taken to ensure the survival of highly threatened species and the reversal of their declines. This Index can meet a range of global policy needs, including reporting on progress toward Aichi Target 13 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and SDG Target 2.5.

To determine the impact of farming over vicuña population in Peru, serum samples were collected from 207 vicuñas (126 captive vicuñas and 81 free-ranging vicuñas) and 614 domestic South American camelids (571 alpacas and 43 llamas), in ten Andean communities at the Salinas y Aguada Blanca reserve, province of Arequipa, southern Peru. Samples were tested for the presence of leptospirosis, foot and mouth disease (FMD), bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1), brucellosis, bluetongue disease (BT), paratuberculosis, and neosporosis. Serological results showed that 1.9% (4/207) of vicuñas, 18.6% (106/571) of alpacas, and 23.3% (10/43) of llamas were positive to one or more Leptospira serovars. One percent of vicuñas (2/207) and 2.4% of domestic camelids (15/614) had Neospora caninum antibodies tested by ELISA, but only two vicuñas and two alpacas were confirmed by Western blot. Epidemiological evaluation found an association of leptospirosis to sex and age (p0.001), with female subjects older than 2.5 years at higher risk of infection. Interestingly, antibodies against Leptospira serovars were only found in captive vicuñas. This is the first study where health status of free-ranging and captive vicuñas has been compared. Results indicate minimal to nil presence of FMD, BVD, BHV-1, brucellosis, BT, paratuberculosis, and neosporosis allied to health disorders in our sample. The detection of seropositive animals against Leptospira, however, unveils the likely significance of leptospirosis in wild and domestic South American camelids, the impact of mixed husbandry over vicuña population and the risk to human health.

El guanaco ( Lama guanicoe cacsilensis ) es una subespecie que se encuentra en peligro critico de extincion en el Peru, con un estimado de 3000 ejemplares distribuidos en las ecorregiones de puna y de serrania esteparia, y una poblacion especial en las lomas costeras, las cuales son ecosistemas con una vegetacion que reverdece durante los meses de mayo a octubre, donde se presenta una mayor disponibilidad de humedad ambiental. Desde hace mas de una decada se reporta la presencia de una pequena poblacion de guanacos en las lomas de San Fernando, Ica, la cual se cree realiza migraciones hacia las partes altas de la vertiente occidental de la cordillera de los Andes durante la estacion seca. Durante los meses de enero a abril del 2013 se realizaron seis monitoreos terrestres en las lomas de Marcona y alrededores. Para los avistamientos directos de guanacos se registro datos de ubicacion, sexo, estrato etario y unidad social. Asi mismo se registraron evidencias indirectas de la presencia de la especie, como estercoleros, revolcaderos, dormideros, senderos y esqueletos, las cuales fueron georreferenciadas. Se determino la existencia de al menos un grupo familiar conformado por un macho y dos hembras sin crias, asi como una hembra juvenil solitaria. Se reporto la presencia de guanacos durante la estacion seca de lomas en los lugares denominados Mancha Blanca, pampa Media Luna y lomas de Marcona, este ultimo el mas importante en su distribucion.

Se describen 75 estudios histopatologicos en biopsias de piel (33 afectados y 42 no afectados con “caspa”), 85 analisis microbiologicos en raspados de piel (44 afectados y 41 no afectados) y 70 determinaciones sericas de zinc, selenio, cobre y molibdeno (41 afectados y 29 no afectados) de tres poblaciones de vicunas silvestres capturadas en “Chakus” en el 2009 en las comunidades campesinas de Huaytara, Ayavi, Santa Rosa de Tambo y en una poblacion captiva multicomunal, en Huancavelica. Los animales afecta- dos no tenian alteraciones clinicas, pero los vellones a la postesquila presentaron esca- mas blanquecinas dispersas o acumuladas y fuertemente adheridas, usualmente, al dor- so lateral y algunas veces por todo el vellon. Todas las muestras de piel, con mayor severidad en las afectadas, mostraron moderada hiperqueratosis ortoqueratotica laminar asociada con dermatosis inespecifica, moderada-severa dilatacion de foliculos pilosos y moderada-severa atrofia de vaina interna de la raiz folicular pero con ausencia de agentes patogenos e inflamacion. El 63.3% (28/44) de raspados de pieles afectadas y el 41.5% (17/ 41) de las no afectadas contenian especies saprofiticas de Ulocladium spp., Penicillum spp., Hialofomicetos , Geotrichum candidum y Aspergilus flavus. Los niveles sangui- neos, en las 70 muestras (afectados y no afectados) presentaron 10 veces la concentra- cion esperada para selenio, principalmente en vicunas captivas en el area multicomunal (afectados 3.23 ± 1.31 μ g/mL y no afectados 3.56 ± 2.27 μ g/mL), posiblemente debido al sobrepastoreo de los pastizales con presencia de especies seleniferas de Astragalus spp. (“garbanzo” o “garbancillo”). Todos los animales mostraron deficiencia de cobre y los animales afectados de Huaytara y todos los de Santa Rosa de Tambo presentaron deficiencia de zinc

Las concentraciones de inmunoglobulinas (Igs) calostrales en la mayoría de especies productivas determinan los niveles de Igs en sus crías, y las fallas en la transferencia pasiva ocasionan susceptibilidades a infecciones en el recién nacido. El presente estudio evaluó dos pruebas de campo (grado de viscosidad visual y uso de refractómetro) para determinar la calidad del calostro de la alpaca en 77 muestras. Asimismo, se determinó la concentración de Igs mediante una prueba de inmunodifusión radial en 26 muestras de calostro y en 77 muestras de suero sanguíneo de crías obtenidas entre las 36 a 48 horas del nacimiento. Las muestras de calostro se analizaron visualmente para determinar grados de viscosidad (1 a 5), y con el refractómetro de azúcar Brix para determinar sólidos totales. El 60% de las muestras calostrales presentó grados de 2-5 de viscosidad y lecturas promedio de 37.3% por el refractómetro de Brix, encontrándose una correlación altamente significativa entre viscosidad y lecturas por el refractómetro Brix (p, In the majority of livestock species, the concentration of maternal immunoglobulin (Ig) in colostrum determines the Ig level in their offspring, and the failure of passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulins results in their susceptibility to disease. This study evaluates two methods (visual assessment and Brix refratometry) for determining alpaca colostrum quality in the field. Evaluations of 26 fresh colostrum samples from 77 alpaca mothers were compared with the results obtained by radial immunodiffusion assay for 77 blood serum samples from 36-48 hours old offspring, and 26 colostrum samples. The colostrum was collected from the dams immediately postpartum and pre-suckling and blood was taken from the crias by jugular venipuncture. Grades of calostral viscosity were assessed visually, with 60% at 2-5, and total calostral solids measured by Brix sugar refractometry averaged 37.3%. The radial immunodiffusion test yielded newborn IgG serum levels of 2679 ± 603.4 mg/dL and colostral IgG levels of 28337± 5593 mg/dL, and only one animal registered failure of immune transfer with serum levels of 750 mg/dL. Results obtained by visual assessment of the colostrum coincide with those obtained by refractometry (p=0.0007), but differ from the serum IgG concentrations in the newborn animals (p=0.15), as do the Brix refractometry readings (p=0.338). Due to the lack of low IgG levels in the colostrum samples, it was impossible to determine if a relationship exists between observed viscosity and colostral IgG concentration. Nonetheless, the positive correlation (p

Se realizaron estudios serológicos en 793 alpacas y 195 vicuñas de comunidades campesinas de los departamentos de Huancavelica y Ayacucho, Perú, para detectar anticuerpos específicos para cinco serovares patogénicos (icterohaemorrhagiae, pomona, canicola, wolfii y ballum) mediante la prueba serovar específica de microaglutinación. Se encontró que 89.6% de las alpacas y 77.4% de las vicuñas eran seropositivas a uno o más serovares. En alpacas, los anticuerpos tuvieron títulos de 1:100 hasta 1:1600, mayormente con los serovares icterohaemorrhagiae (43.4%) y pomona (37.8%); en tanto que en las vicuñas se obtuvo títulos de 1:100 hasta 1:400, reaccionando similarmente a icterohaemorrhagiae (69.2%) y pomona (8.2%). Solamente las alpacas mostraron títulos positivos a los serovares canicola (7.8%) y wolfii (0.6%). Los resultados indican que los animales han estado expuestos a por lo menos 4 de los 5 serovares estudiados y que las alpacas, por los altos títulos, evidencian historia de infección reciente a los serovares icterohaemorrhagiae y pomona. A serologic study was conducted on 793 alpaca and 195 vicuña sera samples collected in Huancavelica and Ayacucho departments in Peru to detect specific antibodies against five pathogenic leptospira serovars (L. icterohaemorrhagiae, L. pomona, L. canicola, L. wolfii and L. ballum) by the microaglutination test. The survey revealed that 89.6% of the alpacas and 77.4% of vicuñas were positive to one or more serovars. In alpacas, the titers varied from 1:100 to 1:1600 reacting mainly to L. icterohaemorrhagiae (43.4%) and L. pomona (37.8%), whereas titers among vicuñas varied from 1:100 to 1:400 reacting similarly to L. icterohaemorrhagiae (69.2%) and L. pomona (8.2%) serovars. The alpacas also had antibodies to L. canicola (7.8 %) and L. wolfii (0.6%) serovars. These results show that the animals had previous exposure to at least 4 of the 5 serovars tested and the elevated titers to L. icterohaemorrhagiae and L. pomona serovars in alpacas suggest a recent infection event.

Las llamas k’ara de Marcapomacocha, provincia de Yauli, departamento de Junín, Perú, se distinguen por presentar un alto porcentaje de animales con coloración ancestral con una semblanza muy semejante al guanaco peruano, Lama guanicoe cacsilensis. Con el objetivo de documentar estas características, aparentemente únicas de esta población, se describen medidas biométricas y análisis del ADN mitocondrial en 50 llamas (5 machos y 45 hembras de uno a más de cuatro años de edad). El patrón de coloración de las llamas muestra tonalidades desde marrón amarillento hasta rojizo oscuro, con el pecho, abdomen y la parte interna de las piernas de color casi blanco y la cabeza gris a negra con blanco alrededor de los labios, ojos y bordes de las orejas. El análisis biométrico de los 30 animales mayores a 4 años fue: altura a la cruz 123.2 ± 12.2 cm; altura a la grupa 119.5 ± 8.5 cm, ancho de pecho 36.5 ± 2.7 cm, perímetro torácico 136.4 ± 5.5 cm, largo de orejas 19.6 ± 2.7, perímetro de cuello al nivel superior 42.8 ± 2.7 cm y al nivel inferior 63.9 ± 4.7 cm, longitud corporal 118.5 ± 5.3 cm y peso promedio de 152. 5 ± 12.3 kg. Al comparar estos datos con los existentes en la literatura, se constata que las llamas de Marcapomacocha son más altas, más largas y más pesadas que las llamas k´ara de otras regiones del Perú. El análisis de un segmento diagnóstico del gen de citocromo b (ADN mitocondrial) reveló que las 50 llamas tenían el haplotipo ancestral guanaco, indicando reducida posibilidad de hibridización con la alpaca. The k’ara llama population of Marcapomacocha district, Yauli province, department of Junín, Peru is known for the preponderance of ancestral coloration in the herds. In order to document the apparently unique characteristics of these animals, phenotypic and DNA analyses were carried out on 50 llamas (5 male and 45 female aged 1 to >4 years) from the region. The coat coloration pattern of the animals was uniform, with tones varying from yellow brown to dark red brown, similar to that of the ancestral Peruvian guanaco (Lama guanicoe cacsilensis), while the chest, abdomen and inner surface of the legs are white with a grey-black head and white outlining of the lips, eyes and ears. Biometric analysis of 30 adults (4 years of age and greater) yielded the following results: withers height 123.2 ± 12.2 cm; rump height 119.5 ± 8.5 cm; chest width 36.5 ± 2.7 cm; chest girth 136.4 ± 5.5 cm; ear length 19.6 ± 2.7, upper and lower neck circumferences 42.8 ± 2.7 and 63.9 ± 4.7 cm respectively. Body length averaged 118.5 ± 5.3 cm and body weight was 152.5 ± 12.3 kg. Based on a survey of the literature, the Marcapomacocha llamas are taller, longer and heavier than k´ara llamas from other regions of Peru. Analysis of a diagnostic segment of the cytochrome b gene revealed that all 50 llamas had the ancestral guanaco haplotype, possibly indicating that no hybridization with alpacas has occurred

El propósito del presente estudio fue identificar las especies de parásitos gastrointestinales que afectan al guanaco peruano y determinar los niveles de parasitismo de las poblaciones evaluadas. Se obtuvieron 132 muestras de heces frescas de guanacos silvestres pertenecientes a nueve poblaciones ubicadas en seis departamentos del Perú: Comunidad Campesina de Huallhua (Ayacucho), Reserva Nacional de Calipuy (La Libertad), Comunidad Campesina de Chavín (Ica), Reserva Nacional Salinas y Aguada Blanca y distritos de Machaguay y Yarabamba (Arequipa), distrito de Quilahuani y Comunidad Campesina de Vila Vilani (Tacna), y distrito de La Capilla (Moquegua). Las muestras fueron procesadas mediante técnicas coproparasitológicas de flotación, sedimentación, cultivo de larvas, Baerman y biometría de larvas y ooquistes. Se identificaron ocho especies de nematodos: Graphinema aucheniae, Bunostomun sp., Ostertagia sp., Trichuris sp, Cooperia sp., Nematodirus sp., Mazamastrongylus peruvianus y Trichostrongylus sp. y cuatro especies de Eimeria: E. lamae, E. alpacae, E. punoensis y E. macusaniensis. Todas las poblaciones se encontraban con al menos un guanaco parasitado, presentando en general cargas bajas y variando las frecuencias de parasitismo gastrointestinal de una población a otra, dependiendo del hábitat y de la proximidad a herbívoros domésticos. The aim of this study was to identify the species of gastrointestinal parasites affecting the Peruvian guanaco and to determine the levels of parasitism in the populations under evaluation. For this purpose, 132 fresh faecal samples were collected from nine populations of wild guanacos located in six departments of Peru: Huallhua Community in Ayacucho; Calipuy National Reserve in La Libertad; Chavín community in Ica; Salinas and Aguada Blanca National Reserve, and Machaguay and Yarabamba districts in Arequipa, Quilahuani district and Vila Vilani community in Tacna, and La Capilla district in Moquegua. Samples were processed by the coproparasitological techniques of flotation, sedimentation, larvae culture, and Baerman, and biometry of larvae and oocysts. Eight species of nematodes were identified: Graphinema aucheniae, Bunostomun spp., Ostertagia spp., Trichuris spp., Cooperia spp., Nematodirus spp., Mazamastrongylus peruvianus and Trichostrongylus spp., and four Eimeria species: E. lamae, E. alpacae, E. punoensis and E. macusaniensis. All guanaco populations had at least one animal with parasites, showing low parasite burden in general, and with a variation in the frequency of gastrointestinal parasitism from one population to another, depending on the habitat and the proximity to other domestic herbivores.