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Background Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is an important opportunistic pathogen after transplantation. Some virological variation in transplant recipients is explained by donor and recipient CMV serostatus, but not all. Circadian variability of herpesviruses has been described, so we investigated the effect of time of day of transplantation on posttransplant CMV viremia. Methods We performed a retrospective analysis of 1517 patients receiving liver or kidney allografts at a single center from 2002 to 2018. All patients were given preemptive therapy with CMV viremia monitoring after transplantation. Circulatory arrest and reperfusion time of donor organ were categorized into 4 periods. Patients were divided into serostatus groups based on previous CMV infection in donor and recipient. CMV viremia parameters were compared between time categories for each group. Factor analysis of mixed data was used to interrogate this complex data set. Results Live-donor transplant recipients were less likely to develop viremia than recipients of deceased-donor organs (48% vs 61%; P Discussion We found no evidence for a circadian effect of transplantation on CMV viremia, but these novel results warrant confirmation by other centers.

Type I interferons (IFNs) are the major host defence against viral infection and are induced following activation of cell surface or intracellular pattern recognition receptors, including retinoic-acid-inducible gene I (RIGI)-like receptors (RLRs). All cellular processes are shaped by the microenvironment and one important factor is the local oxygen tension. The majority of published studies on IFN signalling are conducted under atmospheric (18%) oxygen conditions, that do not reflect the physiological oxygen levels in most organs (1-5% O2). We studied the effect of low oxygen on IFN induction and signalling in induced Pluripotent Stem Cell (iPSC)-derived macrophages as a model for tissue-resident macrophages and assessed the consequence for Zika virus (ZIKV) replication. Hypoxic conditions dampened the expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) following RLR stimulation or IFN treatment at early time points. RNA-sequencing and bio-informatic analysis uncovered several pathways including changes in transcription factor availability, the presence of HIF binding sites in promoter regions, and CpG content that may contribute to the reduced ISG expression. Importantly, hypoxic conditions increased ZIKV replication at early time points, emphasizing the importance of understanding how low oxygen conditions in the local microenvironment affect pathogen sensing and host defence.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of the smallest human DNA viruses and its 3.2 Kb genome encodes multiple overlapping open reading frames, making its viral transcriptome challenging to dissect. Previous studies have combined quantitative PCR and Next Generation Sequencing to identify viral transcripts and splice junctions, however the fragmentation and selective amplification used in short read sequencing precludes the resolution of full length RNAs. Our study coupled an oligonucleotide enrichment protocol with state-of-the-art long read sequencing (PacBio) to identify the repertoire of HBV RNAs. This methodology provides sequencing libraries where up to 25 % of reads are of viral origin and enable the identification of canonical (unspliced), non-canonical (spliced) and chimeric viral-human transcripts. Sequencing RNA isolated from de novo HBV infected cells or those transfected with 1.3 × overlength HBV genomes allowed us to assess the viral transcriptome and to annotate 5′ truncations and polyadenylation profiles. The two HBV model systems showed an excellent agreement in the pattern of major viral RNAs, however differences were noted in the abundance of spliced transcripts. Viral-host chimeric transcripts were identified and more commonly found in the transfected cells. Enrichment capture and PacBio sequencing allows the assignment of canonical and non-canonical HBV RNAs using an open-source analysis pipeline that enables the accurate mapping of the HBV transcriptome.

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) is a life-threatening pathogen that still lacks curative therapies or vaccines. Circadian rhythms are endogenous daily oscillations that coordinate an organism’s response to its environment and invading pathogens. Recent reports of diurnal variation in peripheral viral load in HIV-1 infected subjects highlights the need for mechanistic studies. Here, we demonstrate rhythmic HIV-1 replication in circadian-synchronised model systems and show the circadian transcription factors, BMAL1 and REV-ERB, bind conserved motifs in the HIV-1 promoter. REV-ERB competes with ROR for binding to the same regulatory motif, and we uncover a role for ROR inhibitors to perturb rhythmic HIV-1 replication and host gene expression. We demonstrate that many HIV-1 host factors are circadian regulated and likely to define rhythmic viral replication. In summary, this study increases our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the circadian regulation of HIV that can inform HIV therapy and management.

Background and aims Therapeutic strategies against HBV focus, among others, on the activation of the immune system to enable the infected host to eliminate HBV. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) stabilization has been associated with impaired immune responses. HBV pathogenesis triggers chronic hepatitis-related scaring, leading inter alia to modulation of liver oxygenation and transient immune activation, both factors playing a role in HIF1α stabilization. Approach and results We addressed whether HIF1α interferes with immune-mediated induction of the cytidine deaminase, apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme catalytic subunit 3B (APOBEC3B; A3B), and subsequent covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) decay. Liver biopsies of chronic HBV (CHB) patients were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. The effect of HIF1α induction/stabilization on differentiated HepaRG or mice ± HBV ± LTβR-agonist (BS1) was assessed in vitro and in vivo. Induction of A3B and subsequent effects were analyzed by RT-qPCR, immunoblotting, chromatin immunoprecipitation, immunocytochemistry, and mass spectrometry. Analyzing CHB highlighted that areas with high HIF1α levels and low A3B expression correlated with high HBcAg, potentially representing a reservoir for HBV survival in immune-active patients. In vitro, HIF1α stabilization strongly impaired A3B expression and anti-HBV effect. Interestingly, HIF1α knockdown was sufficient to rescue the inhibition of A3B up-regulation and -mediated antiviral effects, whereas HIF2α knockdown had no effect. HIF1α stabilization decreased the level of v-rel reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog B protein, but not its mRNA, which was confirmed in vivo. Noteworthy, this function of HIF1α was independent of its partner, aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator. Conclusions In conclusion, inhibiting HIF1α expression or stabilization represents an anti-HBV strategy in the context of immune-mediated A3B induction. High HIF1α, mediated by hypoxia or inflammation, offers a reservoir for HBV survival in vivo and should be considered as a restricting factor in the development of immune therapies.

Determining divergent metabolic requirements of T cells, and the viruses and tumours they fail to combat, could provide new therapeutic checkpoints. Inhibition of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) has direct anti-carcinogenic activity. Here, we show that ACAT inhibition has antiviral activity against hepatitis B (HBV), as well as boosting protective anti-HBV and anti-hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) T cells. ACAT inhibition reduces CD8+ T cell neutral lipid droplets and promotes lipid microdomains, enhancing TCR signalling and TCR-independent bioenergetics. Dysfunctional HBV- and HCC-specific T cells are rescued by ACAT inhibitors directly ex vivo from human liver and tumour tissue respectively, including tissue-resident responses. ACAT inhibition enhances in vitro responsiveness of HBV-specific CD8+ T cells to PD-1 blockade and increases the functional avidity of TCR-gene-modified T cells. Finally, ACAT regulates HBV particle genesis in vitro, with inhibitors reducing both virions and subviral particles. Thus, ACAT inhibition provides a paradigm of a metabolic checkpoint able to constrain tumours and viruses but rescue exhausted T cells, rendering it an attractive therapeutic target for the functional cure of HBV and HBV-related HCC., Shared metabolic pathways could allow simultaneous manipulation of T cells, viruses and tumours. Here the authors show targeting cholesterol esterification restrains hepatitis B in vitro, whilst bolstering exhausted antigen-specific T cell responses from human liver and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Background & Aims Hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) are a hallmark of inflammation and are key regulators of hepatic immunity and metabolism, yet their role in HBV replication is poorly defined. HBV replicates in hepatocytes within the liver, a naturally hypoxic organ, however most studies of viral replication are performed under conditions of atmospheric oxygen, where HIFs are inactive. We therefore investigated the role of HIFs in regulating HBV replication. Methods Using cell culture, animal models, human tissue and pharmacological agents inhibiting the HIF-prolyl hydroxylases, we investigated the impact of hypoxia on the HBV life cycle. Results Culturing liver cell-based model systems under low oxygen uncovered a new role for HIFs in binding HBV DNA and activating the basal core promoter, leading to increased pre-genomic RNA and de novo HBV particle secretion. The presence of hypoxia responsive elements among all primate members of the hepadnaviridae highlights an evolutionary conserved role for HIFs in regulating this virus family. Conclusions Identifying a role for this conserved oxygen sensor in regulating HBV transcription suggests that this virus has evolved to exploit the HIF signaling pathway to persist in the low oxygen environment of the liver. Our studies show the importance of considering oxygen availability when studying HBV-host interactions and provide innovative routes to better understand and target chronic HBV infection. Lay summary Viral replication in host cells is defined by the cellular microenvironment and one key factor is local oxygen tension. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) replicates in the liver, a naturally hypoxic organ. Hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) are the major sensors of low oxygen; herein, we identify a new role for these factors in regulating HBV replication, revealing new therapeutic targets., Graphical abstract, Highlights • Primate hepadnaviridae encode conserved hypoxia response elements. • Hypoxia inducible factors bind HBV DNA and activate the basal core promoter. • Pharmacological stabilization of hypoxia inducible factors and low oxygen increases HBV transcription and particle genesis. • Knockdown studies show a role for both HIF-1α and HIF-2α in regulating HBV transcription.

Circadian rhythms are evolutionarily conserved anticipatory systems that allow the host to prepare and respond to threats in its environment. This article summarizes a European Biological Rhythms Society (EBRS) workshop held in July 2020 to review current knowledge of the interplay between the circadian clock and viral infections to inform therapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. A large body of work supports the role of the circadian clock in regulating various aspects of viral replication, host responses, and associated pathogenesis. We review the evidence describing the multifaceted role of the circadian clock, spanning host susceptibility, antiviral mechanisms, and host resilience. Finally, we define the most pressing research questions and how our knowledge of chronobiology can inform key translational research priorities.

Understanding the host pathways that define susceptibility to Severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and disease are essential for the design of new therapies. Oxygen levels in the microenvironment define the transcriptional landscape, however the influence of hypoxia on virus replication and disease in animal models is not well understood. In this study, we identify a role for the hypoxic inducible factor (HIF) signalling axis to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection, epithelial damage and respiratory symptoms in the Syrian hamster model. Pharmacological activation of HIF with the prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitor FG-4592 significantly reduced infectious virus in the upper and lower respiratory tract. Nasal and lung epithelia showed a reduction in SARS-CoV-2 RNA and nucleocapsid expression in treated animals. Transcriptomic and pathological analysis showed reduced epithelial damage and increased expression of ciliated cells. Our study provides new insights on the intrinsic antiviral properties of the HIF signalling pathway in SARS-CoV-2 replication that may be applicable to other respiratory pathogens and identifies new therapeutic opportunities.

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) is a life-threatening pathogen that still lacks a curative therapy or vaccine. Despite the reduction in AIDS-related deaths achieved by current antiretroviral therapies, drawbacks including drug resistance and the failure to eradicate infection highlight the need to identify new pathways to target the infection. Circadian rhythms are endogenous 24-h oscillations which regulate physiological processes including immune responses to infection, and there is an emerging role for the circadian components in regulating viral replication. The molecular clock consists of transcriptional/translational feedback loops that generate rhythms. In mammals, BMAL1 and CLOCK activate rhythmic transcription of genes including the nuclear receptor REV-ERBα, which represses BMAL1 and plays an essential role in sustaining a functional clock. We investigated whether REV-ERB activity regulates HIV-1 replication and found REV-ERB agonists inhibited HIV-1 promoter activity in cell lines, primary human CD4 T cells and macrophages, whilst antagonism or genetic disruption of REV-ERB increased promoter activity. The REV-ERB agonist SR9009 inhibited promoter activity of diverse HIV-subtypes and HIV-1 replication in primary T cells. This study shows a role for REV-ERB synthetic agonists to inhibit HIV-1 LTR promoter activity and viral replication, supporting a role for circadian clock components in regulating HIV-1 replication.

We present long-read Tet-assisted pyridine borane sequencing (lrTAPS) for targeted base-resolution sequencing of DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation in regions up to 10 kb from nanogram-level input. Compatible with both Oxford Nanopore and PacBio Single-Molecule Real-Time (SMRT) sequencing, lrTAPS detects methylation with accuracy comparable to short-read Illumina sequencing but with long-range epigenetic phasing. We applied lrTAPS to sequence difficult-to-map regions in mouse embryonic stem cells and to identify distinct methylation events in the integrated hepatitis B virus genome. Supplementary information Supplementary information accompanies this paper at 10.1186/s13059-020-01969-6.

Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption (SCRD), as encountered during shift work, increases the risk of respiratory viral infection including SARS-CoV-2. However, the mechanism(s) underpinning higher rates of respiratory viral infection following SCRD remain poorly characterised. To address this, we investigated the effects of acute sleep deprivation on the mouse lung transcriptome. Here we show that sleep deprivation profoundly alters the transcriptional landscape of the lung, causing the suppression of both innate and adaptive immune systems, disrupting the circadian clock, and activating genes implicated in SARS-CoV-2 replication, thereby generating a lung environment that promotes viral infection and associated disease pathogenesis. Our study provides a mechanistic explanation of how SCRD increases the risk of respiratory viral infections including SARS-CoV-2 and highlights therapeutic avenues for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

To characterize species of viral mRNA transcripts generated during respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection, human fibroblast-like MRC-5 lung cells were infected with subgroup A RSV for 6, 16 and 24 hours. In addition, we characterised the viral transcriptome in infected Calu-3 lung epithelial cells at 48 hours post infection. Total RNA was harvested and polyadenylated mRNA was enriched and sequenced by direct RNA sequencing using an Oxford nanopore device. This platform yielded over 450,000 direct mRNA transcript reads which were mapped to the viral genome and analysed to determine the relative mRNA levels of viral genes using our in-house ORF-centric pipeline. We examined the frequency of polycistronic readthrough mRNAs were generated and assessed the length of the polyadenylated tails for each group of transcripts. We show a general but non-linear decline in gene transcript abundance across the viral genome, as predicted by the model of RSV gene transcription. However, the decline in transcript abundance is not uniform. The polyadenylate tails generated by the viral polymerase are similar in length to those generated by the host polyadenylation machinery and broadly declined in length for most transcripts as the infection progressed. Finally, we observed that the steady state abundance of transcripts with very short polyadenylate tails less than 20 nucleotides is less for N, SH and G transcripts in both cell lines compared to NS1, NS2, P, M, F and M2 which may reflect differences in mRNA stability and/or translation rates within and between the cell lines.

Despite an unprecedented global research effort on SARS-CoV-2, early replication events remain poorly understood. Given the clinical importance of emergent viral variants with increased transmission, there is an urgent need to understand the early stages of viral replication and transcription. We used single-molecule fluorescence in situ hybridisation (smFISH) to quantify positive sense RNA genomes with 95% detection efficiency, while simultaneously visualising negative sense genomes, subgenomic RNAs, and viral proteins. Our absolute quantification of viral RNAs and replication factories revealed that SARS-CoV-2 genomic RNA is long-lived after entry, suggesting that it avoids degradation by cellular nucleases. Moreover, we observed that SARS-CoV-2 replication is highly variable between cells, with only a small cell population displaying high burden of viral RNA. Unexpectedly, the B.1.1.7 variant, first identified in the UK, exhibits significantly slower replication kinetics than the Victoria strain, suggesting a novel mechanism contributing to its higher transmissibility with important clinical implications.

Following acute HCV infection, the virus establishes a chronic disease in the majority of patients whilst few individuals clear the infection spontaneously. The precise mechanisms that determine chronic HCV infection or spontaneous clearance are not completely understood but are proposed to be driven by host and viral genetic factors as well as HCV encoded immunomodulatory proteins. Using the HIV-1 LTR as a tool to measure NF-κB activity, we identified that the HCV E1E2 glycoproteins and more so the E2 protein down-modulates HIV-1 LTR activation in 293T, TZM-bl and the more physiologically relevant Huh7 liver derived cell line. We demonstrate this effect is specifically mediated through inhibiting NF-κB binding to the LTR and show that this effect was conserved for all HCV genotypes tested. Transcriptomic analysis of 293T cells expressing the HCV glycoproteins identified E1E2 mediated stimulation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response pathway and upregulation of stress response genes such as ATF3. Through shRNA mediated inhibition of ATF3, one of the components, we observed that E1E2 mediated inhibitory effects on HIV-1 LTR activity was alleviated. Our in vitro studies demonstrate that HCV Env glycoprotein activates host ER Stress Pathways known to inhibit NF-κB activity. This has potential implications for understanding HCV induced immune activation as well as oncogenesis.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a global crisis with unprecedented challenges for public health. Vaccinations against SARS-CoV-2 have slowed the incidence of new infections and reduced disease severity. As the time of day of vaccination has been reported to influence host immune responses to multiple pathogens, we quantified the influence of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination time, vaccine type, participant age, sex, and days post-vaccination on anti-Spike antibody responses in health care workers. The magnitude of the anti-Spike antibody response is associated with the time of day of vaccination, vaccine type, participant age, sex, and days post-vaccination. These results may be relevant for optimising SARS-CoV-2 vaccine efficacy.

The untranslated regions (UTRs) of viral genomes contain a variety of conserved yet dynamic structures crucial for viral replication, providing drug targets for the development of broad spectrum anti-virals. We combine in vitro RNA analysis with Molecular Dynamics simulations to build the first 3D models of the structure and dynamics of key regions of the 5’ UTR of the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Furthermore, we determine the binding of metallo-supramolecular helicates (cylinders) to this RNA structure. These nano-size agents are uniquely able to thread through RNA junctions and we identify their binding to a 3-base bulge and the central cross 4-way junction located in the stem loop 5. Finally, we show these RNA-binding cylinders suppress SARS-CoV-2 replication, highlighting their potential as novel antiviral agents.

NP

SummaryDespite an unprecedented global research effort on SARS-CoV-2, early replication events remain poorly understood. Given the clinical importance of emergent viral variants with increased transmission, there is an urgent need to understand the early stages of viral replication and transcription. We used single molecule fluorescence in situ hybridisation (smFISH) to quantify positive sense RNA genomes with 95% detection efficiency, while simultaneously visualising negative sense genomes, sub-genomic RNAs and viral proteins. Our absolute quantification of viral RNAs and replication factories revealed that SARS-CoV-2 genomic RNA is long-lived after entry, suggesting that it avoids degradation by cellular nucleases. Moreover, we observed that SARS-CoV-2 replication is highly variable between cells, with only a small cell population displaying high burden of viral RNA. Unexpectedly, the B.1.1.7 variant, first identified in the UK, exhibits significantly slower replication kinetics than the Victoria strain, suggesting a novel mechanism contributing to its higher transmissibility with important clinical implications.Graphical AbstractIn briefBy detecting nearly all individual SARS-CoV-2 RNA molecules, we quantified viral replication and defined cell susceptibility to infection. We discovered that a minority of cells show significantly elevated viral RNA levels and observed slower replication kinetics for the Alpha variant relative to the Victoria strain.HighlightsSingle molecule quantification of SARS-CoV-2 replication uncovers early infection kineticsThere is substantial heterogeneity between cells in rates of SARS-CoV-2 replicationGenomic RNA is stable and persistent during the initial stages of infectionB.1.1.7 variant replicates more slowly than the Victoria strain

COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is a global health issue with more than 2 million fatalities to date. Viral replication is shaped by the cellular microenvironment and one important factor to consider is oxygen tension, where hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) regulates transcriptional responses to hypoxia. SARS-CoV-2 primarily infects cells of the respiratory tract, entering via its Spike glycoprotein binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2). We demonstrate that hypoxia and the HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitor Roxadustat reduce ACE2 expression and inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry and replication in lung epithelial cells via a HIF-1α dependent pathway. Hypoxia and Roxadustat inhibit SARS-CoV-2 RNA replication showing that post-entry steps in the viral life cycle are oxygen-sensitive. This study highlights the importance of HIF signalling in regulating multiple aspects of SARS-CoV-2 infection and raises the potential use of HIF prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors in the prevention or treatment of COVID-19., Graphical Abstract, Wing et al. demonstrate that key aspects of the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle are dependent on cellular oxygen tension. Activation of the cellular oxygen sensing pathway inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection, highlighting a key cellular pathway that could be exploited as a potential therapeutic avenue for COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, is a global health issue with unprecedented challenges for public health. SARS-CoV-2 primarily infects cells of the respiratory tract via Spike glycoprotein binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2). Circadian rhythms coordinate an organism’s response to its environment and can regulate host susceptibility to virus infection. We demonstrate that silencing the circadian regulator Bmal1 or treating lung epithelial cells with the REV-ERB agonist SR9009 reduce ACE2 expression and inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry and replication. Importantly, treating infected cells with SR9009 limits SARS-CoV-2 replication and secretion of infectious particles, showing that post-entry steps in the viral life cycle are influenced by the circadian system. Transcriptome analysis revealed that Bmal1 silencing induced interferon stimulated gene transcripts in Calu-3 lung epithelial cells, providing a mechanism for the circadian pathway to limit SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our study highlights alternative approaches to understand and improve therapeutic targeting of SARS-CoV-2., Graphical Abstract

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is highly variable and transmits through infected blood to establish a chronic liver infection in the majority of patients. Our knowledge on the infectivity of clinical HCV strains is hampered by the lack of in vitro cell culture systems that support efficient viral replication. We and others have reported that HCV can associate with and infect immune cells and may thereby evade host immune surveillance and elimination. To evaluate whether B cells play a role in HCV transmission, we assessed the ability of B cells and sera from recent (

NP105–113-B*07:02-specific CD8+ T cell responses are considered among the most dominant in SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals. We found strong association of this response with mild disease. Analysis of NP105–113-B*07:02-specific T cell clones and single-cell sequencing were performed concurrently, with functional avidity and antiviral efficacy assessed using an in vitro SARS-CoV-2 infection system, and were correlated with T cell receptor usage, transcriptome signature and disease severity (acute n = 77, convalescent n = 52). We demonstrated a beneficial association of NP105–113-B*07:02-specific T cells in COVID-19 disease progression, linked with expansion of T cell precursors, high functional avidity and antiviral effector function. Broad immune memory pools were narrowed postinfection but NP105–113-B*07:02-specific T cells were maintained 6 months after infection with preserved antiviral efficacy to the SARS-CoV-2 Victoria strain, as well as Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta variants. Our data show that NP105–113-B*07:02-specific T cell responses associate with mild disease and high antiviral efficacy, pointing to inclusion for future vaccine design. Peng et al. find that immunodominant cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) specific for NP105–113-B*07:02 are associated with reduced COVID-19 severity. Mechanistically, NP105–113-B*07:02-specific CTLs show potent antiviral functionality and may represent rational T cell vaccine targets.

The circadian clock controls several aspects of mammalian physiology and orchestrates the daily oscillations of biological processes and behavior. Our circadian rhythms are driven by an endogenous central clock in the brain that synchronizes with clocks in peripheral tissues, thereby regulating our immune system and the severity of infections. These rhythms affect the pharmacokinetics and efficacy of therapeutic agents and vaccines. The core circadian regulatory circuits and clock-regulated host pathways provide fertile ground to identify novel antiviral therapies. An increased understanding of the role circadian systems play in regulating virus infection and the host response to the virus will inform our clinical management of these diseases. This review provides an overview of the experimental and clinical evidence reporting on the interplay between the circadian clock and viral infections, highlighting the importance of virus-clock research.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is of global importance with over 2 billion people exposed to the virus during their lifetime and at risk of progressive liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HBV is a member of the hepadnaviridae family that replicates via episomal copies of a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) genome. The chromatinization of this small viral genome, with overlapping open reading frames and regulatory elements, suggests an important role for epigenetic pathways to regulate viral transcription. The chromatin-organising transcriptional insulator protein CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) has been reported to regulate transcription in a diverse range of viruses. We identified two conserved CTCF binding sites in the HBV genome within Enhancer I and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis demonstrated an enrichment of CTCF binding to integrated or episomal copies of the viral genome. siRNA knockdown of CTCF results in a significant increase in pre-genomic RNA levels in de novo infected HepG2 cells and those supporting episomal HBV DNA replication. Furthermore, mutation of these sites in HBV DNA minicircles abrogated CTCF binding and increased pre-genomic RNA levels, providing evidence of a direct role for CTCF in repressing HBV transcription.IMPORTANCEHepatitis B virus (HBV) is a global cause of liver disease. At least 300 million individuals are chronically infected with HBV, frequently leading to life-threatening liver cirrhosis and cancer. Following viral entry, HBV DNA enters the nucleus and is bound by histones that are subject to epigenetic modification. The HBV genome contains two enhancer elements that stimulate viral transcription but the interplay between the viral enhancers and promoters is not fully understood. We have identified the host cell protein CCCTC binding factor (CTCF) as a repressor of HBV gene expression. CTCF binds to the HBV genome within Enhancer I and represses transcription of pre-genomic RNA. These findings provide new insights into how HBV transcription is regulated and show a new role for CTCF as a transcriptional insulator by associating with the viral genome between Enhancer I and the downstream basal core promoter.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide. The prolyl hydroxylase domain (PHD)-hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) pathway is a key mammalian oxygen sensing pathway and is frequently perturbed by pathological states including infection and inflammation. We discovered a significant upregulation of hypoxia regulated gene transcripts in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) in the absence of liver cirrhosis. We used state-of-the-art in vitro and in vivo HBV infection models to evaluate a role for HBV infection and the viral regulatory protein HBx to drive HIF-signalling. HBx had no significant impact on HIF expression or associated transcriptional activity under normoxic or hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, we found no evidence of hypoxia gene expression in HBV de novo infection, HBV infected human liver chimeric mice or transgenic mice with integrated HBV genome. Collectively, our data show clear evidence of hypoxia gene induction in CHB that is not recapitulated in existing models for acute HBV infection, suggesting a role for inflammatory mediators in promoting hypoxia gene expression.

Viral replication is defined by the cellular microenvironment and one key factor is local oxygen tension, where hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) regulate the cellular response to oxygen. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected cells within secondary lymphoid tissues exist in a low-oxygen or hypoxic environment in vivo. However, the majority of studies on HIV replication and latency are performed under laboratory conditions where HIFs are inactive. We show a role for HIF-2α in restricting HIV transcription via direct binding to the viral promoter. Hypoxia reduced tumor necrosis factor or histone deacetylase inhibitor, Romidepsin, mediated reactivation of HIV and inhibiting HIF signaling-pathways reversed this phenotype. Our data support a model where the low-oxygen environment of the lymph node may suppress HIV replication and promote latency. We identify a mechanism that may contribute to the limited efficacy of latency reversing agents in reactivating HIV and suggest new strategies to control latent HIV-1., Zhuang et al. investigate how low oxygen levels affect HIV-1 replication in cell culture models. They find that the hypoxia-induced transcription factor HIF-2α represses HIV transcription and that low oxygen reduces the reactivation of latent HIV, suggesting that the hypoxic environment in the lymph node may influence HIV replication and latency.

SummaryAntiviral treatments targeting the emerging coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are urgently required. We screened a panel of already-approved drugs in a cell culture model of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and identified two new antiviral agents: the HIV protease inhibitor Nelfinavir and the anti-inflammatory drug Cepharanthine. In silico modeling shows Nelfinavir binds the SARS-CoV-2 main protease consistent with its inhibition of viral replication, whilst Cepharanthine inhibits viral attachment and entry into cells. Consistent with their different modes of action, in vitro assays highlight a synergistic effect of this combined treatment to limit SARS-CoV-2 proliferation. Mathematical modeling in vitro antiviral activity coupled with the known pharmacokinetics for these drugs predicts that Nelfinavir will facilitate viral clearance. Combining Nelfinavir/Cepharanthine enhanced their predicted efficacy to control viral proliferation, to ameliorate both the progression of disease and risk of transmission. In summary, this study identifies a new multidrug combination treatment for COVID-19.