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Mixed halide hybrid perovskites CH3NH3PbI3–xClx (MAPICl) show higher charge carrier diffusion lengths, improved solar cell characteristics, and enhanced stability as compared to their single halide counterparts CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPI). This is surprising in view of the fact that the actually observed Cl content is very low (x < 0.1) as the incorporation of large amounts of Cl in the MAPI lattice is crystallographically not possible. Understanding the role of chlorine in these systems is therefore of the utmost importance and has been the subject of several experimental and theoretical studies. The main conclusions are that Cl addition leads to larger grain sizes and preferential crystalline orientation; however, so far a more quantitative description of these aspects is lacking. Synchrotron X-ray diffraction microscopy is a very promising technique in this respect, as it allows for the direct imaging of crystalline domains oriented in a selected direction with a resolution of some hundreds of nanometers. When i...

Divalent positively charged Ca2+ ions acting as electrostatic chelating linkers were used to induce clustering of water-soluble CdTe nanocrystals through coordination to the negatively charged carboxylic acid groups of their ligands. An efficient Forster resonant energy transfer (FRET) was responsible for changes in the emission spectra and the luminescence decay times of CdTe nanocrystal clusters composed of particles of two and three different sizes. FRET was also observable in nominally single-sized samples with intrinsically broadened size distributions. Excitation energy transfer toward acceptor nanocrystals in binary clusters resulted in a 77% increase of the acceptor emission intensity at room temperature. Time-resolved fluorescence measurements revealed that at least part of the energy transfer involves long-lived intermediate trap states and the recycling of this trapped excitation energy by transfer to red-emitting nanocrystals.

In this work, we show strong experimental evidence in favor of a proposed incorporation mechanism of hydrophobic semiconductor nanocrystals (or quantum dots, QDs) in monodisperse silica spheres (diameter ∼35 nm) by a water-in-oil (W/O) reverse microemulsion synthesis. Fluorescence spectroscopy is used to investigate the rapid ligand exchange that takes place at the QD surface upon addition of the various synthesis reactants. It is found that hydrolyzed TEOS has a high affinity for the QD surface and replaces the hydrophobic amine ligands, which enables the transfer of the QDs to the hydrophilic interior of the micelles where silica growth takes place. By hindering the ligand exchange using stronger binding thiol ligands, the position of the incorporated QDs can be controlled from centered to off-center and eventually to the surface of the silica spheres. The proposed incorporation mechanism explains how we can have high control over the incorporation of single QDs exactly in the middle of silica spheres. It is likely that the proposed mechanism also applies to the incorporation of other hydrophobic nanocrystals in silica using the same method. In conjunction with our findings, we were able to make QD/silica particles with an unprecedented quantum efficiency of 35%.

We study the propagation of hard x rays in single curved x-ray waveguide channels and observe waveguide effects down to surprisingly small radii of curvature R≃10 mm and a large contour length s≃5 mm, deflecting beams up to 30°. At these high angles, about 2 orders of magnitude above the critical angle of total reflection θ(c), most radiation modes are lost by "leaking" into the cladding, while certain "survivor" modes persist. This may open up a new form of integrated x-ray optics "on a chip," requiring curvatures mostly well below the extreme values studied here, e.g., to split and to delay x-ray pulses.

We present the first example of a phase transition in a nonequilibrium steady state that can be argued analytically to be first order. The system of interest is a two-species reaction-diffusion problem whose control parameter is the total density ρ. Mean-field theory predicts a second-order transition between two stationary states at a critical density ρ=ρ c. We develop a phenomenological picture that instead predicts a first-order transition below the upper critical dimension d c=4. This picture is confirmed by hysteresis found in numerical simulations, and by the study of a renormalization-group improved equation of state. The latter approach is inspired by the Coleman–Weinberg mechanism in QED.

In this paper, lithographic methods are successfully employed to create growth templates for colloidal self-assembly, enabling the inclusion of crystallographic defects at predetermined positions. It is shown that through smart template design stacking faults can be grown predictably into face centered cubic structures. More interestingly, by precise guiding of the stacking faults hollow intergrowth channels can be grown at predetermined lateral and vertical positions. The mechanisms involved in defect growth are promising for extension of this technique to more complex crystal structures, such as the diamond structure, as well as to more complex faults, including corners and t-junctions.

An important challenge in medical diagnostics is to design all-in-one contrast agents that can be detected with multiple techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission tomography (SPECT) or fluorescence imaging (FI). Although many dual labeled agents have been proposed, mainly for combined MRI/FI, constructs for three imaging modalities are scarce. Here gold/silica nanoparticles with a poly(ethylene glycol), paramagnetic and fluorescent lipid coating were synthesized, characterized and applied as trimodal contrast agents to allow for nanoparticle-enhanced imaging of macrophage cells in vitro via MRI, CT and FI, and mice livers in vivo via MRI and CT. This agent can be a useful tool in a multitude of applications, including cell tracking and target-specific molecular imaging, and is a step in the direction of truly multi-modal imaging.

Using microradian X-ray diffraction, we investigated the crystal structure of convectively assembled colloidal photonic crystals over macroscopic (0.5 mm) distances. Through adaptation of Wilson's theory for X-ray diffraction, we show that certain types of line defects that are often observed in scanning electron microscopy images of the surface of these crystals are actually planar defects at 70.5 degrees angles with the substrate. The defects consist of two parallel hexagonal close-packed planes in otherwise face-centered cubic crystals. Our measurements indicate that these stacking faults cause at least 10% of stacking disorder, which has to be reduced to fabricate high-quality colloidal photonic crystals.

Silica particles as a nanoparticulate carrier material for contrast agents have received considerable attention the past few years, since the material holds great promise for biomedical applications. A key feature for successful application of this material in vivo is biocompatibility, which may be significantly improved by appropriate surface modification. In this study, we report a novel strategy to coat silica particles with a dense monolayer of paramagnetic and PEGylated lipids. The silica nanoparticles carry a quantum dot in their center and are made target-specific by the conjugation of multiple alphavbeta3-integrin-specific RGD-peptides. We demonstrate their specific uptake by endothelial cells in vitro using fluorescence microscopy, quantitative fluorescence imaging, and magnetic resonance imaging. The lipid-coated silica particles introduced here represent a new platform for nanoparticulate multimodality contrast agents.

The phase behaviour in thin films of an asymmetric polystyrene-b-polymethylmethacrylate (PS-b-PMMA) block copolymer with a molecular weight of 39 kg mol 1 was assessed at a wide range of temperatures and times. Cylindrical PMMA structures featuring a diameter close to 10 nm and perpendicularly oriented with respect to the substrate were obtained at 180 degrees C in relatively short annealing times (t

Small machines -- like molecular motors or active particles -- operate in highly fluctuating environments that affect their efficiency and power. This thesis aims at describing small machines using stochastic thermodynamics and large deviation theory. By relating mean currents to thermodynamic forces, locally first and then at the global level, we introduce the non-equilibrium conductance matrix that generalizes the Onsager matrix for stationary non-equilibrium systems. We use it to bound machine efficiency by a universal function depending only on the degree of coupling between input and output currents and to find new general power-efficiency trade-offs. On the fluctuations side, the non-equilibrium conductance matrix can be used to find a quadratic bound on the large deviation function of currents. This enables to revisit the fluctuation-dissipation theorem as an inequality when dealing with far-from-equilibrium systems, but also to derive bounds on the efficiency large deviation function. Finally, we study the effects of ergodicity breaking on the fluctuations of observables like activity, currents or efficiency. In particular, we derive the efficiency large deviation function for a model of interacting nanomachines, for which tight coupling and ergodicity breaking emerge in the thermodynamic limit., Les petites machines, comme les moteurs moléculaires ou les particules actives, fonctionnent dans un environnement fortement fluctuant qui affecte leur efficacité ou leur puissance. L'objectif de cette thèse est de décrire les petites machines à l'aide de la thermodynamique stochastique et de la théorie des grandes déviations. En reliant localement puis globalement les courants aux forces thermodynamiques, on introduit une matrice de conductance hors d'équilibre, qui généralise la matrice d'Onsager pour un système stationnaire hors d'équilibre. Cela permet de majorer l'efficacité des machines par une fonction universelle qui ne dépend que du degré de couplage entre les courants d'entrée et de sortie. On obtient aussi de nouvelles relations générales entre puissance et efficacité. Du point de vue des fluctuations, la matrice de conductance hors d'équilibre est reliée à une borne quadratique pour les fonctions de grande déviation des courants. Cette borne permet d'obtenir des bornes pour les fonctions de grande déviation de l'efficacité, mais aussi de revisiter le théorème de fluctuation-dissipation comme une inégalité dans le cas des systèmes loin de l'équilibre. Pour terminer, on étudie l'effet d'une brisure d'ergodicité sur les fluctuations d'observables comme l'activité, les courants ou l'efficacité. En particulier, on calcule la fonction de grande déviation de l'efficacité pour un ensemble de nanomachines en interaction pour lesquelles un couplage fort et une brisure d'ergodicité apparaissent à la limite thermodynamique.

Small machines -- like molecular motors or active particles -- operate in highly fluctuating environments that affect their efficiency and power. This thesis aims at describing small machines using stochastic thermodynamics and large deviation theory. By relating mean currents to thermodynamic forces, locally first and then at the global level, we introduce the non-equilibrium conductance matrix that generalizes the Onsager matrix for stationary non-equilibrium systems. We use it to bound machine efficiency by a universal function depending only on the degree of coupling between input and output currents and to find new general power-efficiency trade-offs. On the fluctuations side, the non-equilibrium conductance matrix can be used to find a quadratic bound on the large deviation function of currents. This enables to revisit the fluctuation-dissipation theorem as an inequality when dealing with far-from-equilibrium systems, but also to derive bounds on the efficiency large deviation function. Finally, we study the effects of ergodicity breaking on the fluctuations of observables like activity, currents or efficiency. In particular, we derive the efficiency large deviation function for a model of interacting nanomachines, for which tight coupling and ergodicity breaking emerge in the thermodynamic limit.; Les petites machines, comme les moteurs moléculaires ou les particules actives, fonctionnent dans un environnement fortement fluctuant qui affecte leur efficacité ou leur puissance. L'objectif de cette thèse est de décrire les petites machines à l'aide de la thermodynamique stochastique et de la théorie des grandes déviations. En reliant localement puis globalement les courants aux forces thermodynamiques, on introduit une matrice de conductance hors d'équilibre, qui généralise la matrice d'Onsager pour un système stationnaire hors d'équilibre. Cela permet de majorer l'efficacité des machines par une fonction universelle qui ne dépend que du degré de couplage entre les courants d'entrée et de sortie. On obtient aussi de nouvelles relations générales entre puissance et efficacité. Du point de vue des fluctuations, la matrice de conductance hors d'équilibre est reliée à une borne quadratique pour les fonctions de grande déviation des courants. Cette borne permet d'obtenir des bornes pour les fonctions de grande déviation de l'efficacité, mais aussi de revisiter le théorème de fluctuation-dissipation comme une inégalité dans le cas des systèmes loin de l'équilibre. Pour terminer, on étudie l'effet d'une brisure d'ergodicité sur les fluctuations d'observables comme l'activité, les courants ou l'efficacité. En particulier, on calcule la fonction de grande déviation de l'efficacité pour un ensemble de nanomachines en interaction pour lesquelles un couplage fort et une brisure d'ergodicité apparaissent à la limite thermodynamique.

This thesis uses methods and models from non-equilibrium statistical physics to describe intracellular processes. Bidirectional microtubule-based transport within axons is modeled as a quasi-one-dimensional stochastic lattice gas with two particle species moving in opposite directions under mutual exclusion interaction. Generically occurring clusters of particles in current models for intracellular transport can be dissolved by additionally considering the dynamics of the transport lattice, i.e., the microtubule. An idealized model for the lattice dynamics is used to create a phase transition toward a homogenous state with efficient transport in both directions. In the thermodynamic limit, a steady state property of the dynamic lattice limits the maximal size of clusters. Lane formation mechanisms which are due to specific particle-particle interactions turn out to be very sensitive to the model assumptions. Furthermore, even if some particle-particle interaction is considered, taking the lattice dynamics into account almost always improves transport. Thus the lattice dynamics seems to be the key aspect in understanding how nature regulates intracellular traffic. The last part introduces a model for the dynamics of a microtubule which is limited in its growth by the cell boundary. The action of a rescue-enhancing protein which is added to the growing tip of a microtubule and then slowly dissociates leads to interesting aging effects which should be experimentally observable. Diese Dissertation wendet Methoden aus dem Bereich der Statistischen Physik des Nichtgleichgewichts an, um intrazelluläre Prozesse zu beschreiben. Bidirektionaler Transport auf Mikrotubuli wird als quasi-eindimensionales stochastisches Gittergas mit zwei Teilchensorten modelliert, die sich unter Volumenausschluss in entgegengesetzte Richtung bewegen. In bisherigen Modellen für intrazellulären Transport kommt es zu Staubildung. Die Staus lösen sich jedoch auf, wenn die Dynamik des Gitters, also des Mikrotubulus, berücksichtigt wird. Ein vereinfachtes Modell für die Gitterdynamik wird verwendet, um einen Phasenübergang zu einem homogenen Zustand zu erzeugen, der effizienten Transport in beide Richtungen erlaubt. Im thermodynamischen Limit begrenzt eine Eigenschaft des stationären Zustands des Gitters die maximale Länge von Staus. Spurbildung kann durch zusätzliche Teilchen-Teilchen-Wechselwirkungen erreicht werden, erweist sich jedoch als sehr empfindlich hinsichtlich der Modellannahmen. Darüber hinaus ist der positive Effekt der Gitterdynamik auf den Transport immer vorhanden. Folglich scheint die Dynamik des Gitters für das Verständnis der Regulierung des intrazellulären Transports besonders wichtig zu sein. Im letzten Teil wird ein Modell für Mikrotubuli-Dynamik eingeführt. Die Wirkung eines Rescue-fördernden Proteins, das dynamisch an der Spitze eingebaut wird, führt zu interessanten Alterungsphänomenen, die experimentell beobachtbar sein sollten.

This thesis uses methods and models from non-equilibrium statistical physics to describe intracellular processes. Bidirectional microtubule-based transport within axons is modeled as a quasi-one-dimensional stochastic lattice gas with two particle species moving in opposite directions under mutual exclusion interaction. Generically occurring clusters of particles in current models for intracellular transport can be dissolved by additionally considering the dynamics of the transport lattice, i.e., the microtubule. An idealized model for the lattice dynamics is used to create a phase transition toward a homogenous state with efficient transport in both directions. In the thermodynamic limit, a steady state property of the dynamic lattice limits the maximal size of clusters. Lane formation mechanisms which are due to specific particle-particle interactions turn out to be very sensitive to the model assumptions. Furthermore, even if some particle-particle interaction is considered, taking the lattice dynamics into account almost always improves transport. Thus the lattice dynamics seems to be the key aspect in understanding how nature regulates intracellular traffic. The last part introduces a model for the dynamics of a microtubule which is limited in its growth by the cell boundary. The action of a rescue-enhancing protein which is added to the growing tip of a microtubule and then slowly dissociates leads to interesting aging effects which should be experimentally observable., Dans cette thèse, des méthodes de la physique statistique hors équilibre sont utilisées pour décrire deux processus intracellulaires. Le transport bidirectionnel sur les microtubules est décrit à l'aide d'un gaz sur réseau stochastique quasi-unidimensionnel. Deux espèces de particules sautent dans des directions opposées en interagissant par exclusion. La présence habituelle d'accumulations de particules peut être supprimée en rajoutant la dynamique du réseau, c'est-à-dire de la microtubule. Un modèle simplifié pour la dynamique du réseau produit une transition de phase vers un état homogène avec un transport très efficace dans les deux directions. Dans la limite thermodynamique, une propriété de l'état stationnaire limite la longueur maximale des accumulations. La formation de voies peut être causée par des interactions entre particules. Néanmoins, ces mécanismes s'avèrent peu robustes face à une variation des paramètres du modèle. Dans presque tous les cas, la dynamique du réseau a un effet positif et bien plus important sur le transport que la formation de voies. Par conséquent, la dynamique du réseau semble un point-clé pour comprendre la régulation du transport intracellulaire. La dernière partie introduit un modèle pour la dynamique d'une microtubule sous l'action d'une protéine qui favorise les sauvetages. Des phénomènes intéressants de vieillissement apparaissent alors, et devraient être observables dans des expériences.