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Background and Situation Analysis The importance of Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) projects for the protection of health is embedded in the sustainable development goals. However, within the development and humanitarian fields sustainability of WASH projects is still a challenge with 30–50% of projects failing within two to five years of implementation. Though failure is not linked to any one source, a common theme speaks to a greater need for community engagement and integration of the wants and needs of the end-user in the design process. Social marketing, with its focus on the consumer and use of commercial marketing strategies to achieve behavior change is a promising approach that can be integrated into ongoing WASH initiatives to meet program outcomes and to achieve long-term sustainability. Priority audience Primary audience includes technicians who manufacture and repair pitcher pumps. Secondary audience includes community members in Toamasina, Madagascar, who will experience a decrease in exposure to lead through their water supply. Behavioral objectives Decrease exposure to lead (Pb) introduced through the use of a decentralized, self-supply water system, the pitcher pump. Specifically, decrease use of leaded components in the manufacturing and repair of pitcher-pumps Strategy/Intervention Development of the intervention followed the social marketing process including conducting a situational analysis, identification and selection of a behavioral focus and priority population, formative research, development of an integrated marketing strategy, pretesting the strategy, followed by campaign implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. An intervention focused on building a sense of community and introducing the element of professionalism for the pump manufacturers was developed, consisting of personalized one-on-one outreach to raise awareness of the health topic, followed by skill building trainings on how to make the switch to non-leaded components. This was coupled with tangible products that created a new professional network, documentation of work, and backing of work by trusted government entities. Evaluation Methods and Results Using the theory of planned behavior, a pre/post-test summative evaluation was developed. Preliminary results indicate that pump technicians no longer use lead in pumps unless specifically requested by the pump owners. These results indicate a positive shift towards the use of lead-free components with project follow-up and analysis ongoing. Recommendations for Social Marketing Practice Use of social marketing within the WASH sector is lacking. This paper demonstrates the integration of social marketing in an ongoing WASH project. Through a description of each step of the process, our experiences in implementing it and the lessons learned, we hope to guide future integration. Additionally, this paper demonstrates the convergence of engineers and social marketers working collaboratively on an interdisciplinary team and how this served to enhance project understanding, aid in building local partnerships and help with long-term sustainability.

The world is not on track to meet Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 to provide universal access to safely managed drinking water by 2030. Removal of priority microbial contaminants by disinfection is one aspect of ensuring water is safely managed. Passive chlorination (also called in-line chlorination) represents one approach to disinfecting drinking water before or at the point of collection (POC), without requiring daily user input or electricity. In contrast to manual household chlorination methods typically implemented at the point of use (POU), passive chlorinators can reduce the user burden for chlorine dosing and enable treatment at scales ranging from communities to small municipalities. In this review, we synthesized evidence from 27 evaluations of passive chlorinators (in 19 articles, 3 NGO reports, and 5 theses) conducted across 16 countries in communities, schools, health care facilities, and refugee camps. Of the 27 passive chlorinators we identified, the majority (22/27) were solid tablet or granular chlorine dosers, and the remaining devices were liquid chlorine dosers. We identified the following research priorities to address existing barriers to scaled deployment of passive chlorinators: (i) strengthening local chlorine supply chains through decentralized liquid chlorine production, (ii) validating context-specific business models and financial sustainability, (iii) leveraging remote monitoring and sensing tools to monitor real-time chlorine levels and potential system failures, and (iv) designing handpump-compatible passive chlorinators to serve the many communities reliant on handpumps as a primary drinking water source. We also propose a set of reporting indicators for future studies to facilitate standardized evaluations of the technical performance and financial sustainability of passive chlorinators. In addition, we discuss the limitations of chlorine-based disinfection and recognize the importance of addressing chemical contamination in drinking water supplies. Passive chlorinators deployed and managed at-scale have the potential to elevate the quality of existing accessible and available water services to meet "safely managed" requirements.

Environmental health risks such as household air pollution due to burning solid fuels, inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene, and chemical pollution disproportionately affect the poorest and most marginalized populations. While billions of dollars and countless hours of research have been applied toward addressing these issues in both development and humanitarian contexts, many interventions fail to achieve or sustain desired outcomes over time. This pattern points to the perpetuation of linear thinking, despite the complex nature of environmental health within these contexts. There is a need and an opportunity to engage in critical reflection of the dominant paradigms in the global environmental health community, including how they affect decision-making and collective learning. These paradigms should be adapted as needed toward the integration of diverse perspectives and the uptake of systems thinking. Participatory modeling, complexity-aware monitoring, and virtual simulation modeling can help achieve this. Additionally, virtual simulation modeling is relatively inexpensive and can provide a low-stakes environment for testing interventions before implementation.

Consequences of climate inaction are already felt by many vulnerable populations, and adapting to these impacts is an increasingly important necessity for affected communities. This study assessed ...

As households move up the sanitation ladder, health risks presumably decline but the corresponding technologies may require increasing operation and maintenance costs. One critique of the ladder is that it prioritizes technology and could be improved if it included a functional approach to monitoring, such as including aspects of environmental sustainability that consider resource recovery. Using analyses of data obtained from semi-structured interviews, surveys, and field observations, this study examines the functional transition toward improved sanitation technology as a household moves up the sanitation ladder with the added function of resource recovery (from pit latrines to composting latrines). The study took place in six indigenous Ngäbe communities in Panama. The results reveal that of 103 pit latrines studied, 88% were completed and in use, but only 35% were operated appropriately. Approximately 60% of pit latrine owners reported that they would use composting latrines, with compost as the primary perceived benefit. Barriers to adoption include lack of prior experience, user disgust of working with excrement, and the perceived amount of work required for operation. Overall, these findings indicate the importance of establishing demonstration projects and culturally aligned training for more complex sanitation technologies that enable resource recovery. The results have broad implications for understanding sanitation technology transitions in rural and indigenous settlements in other world regions.

Use of bamboo as a construction material has world-wide potential given it is lightweight, highly-renewable, and fast-growing. The pitfall lies largely in the variability of the material properties...

Nutrient pollution is considered a wicked problem because of its many significant economic, social, and environmental impacts that are caused by multiple pollutants originating from a variety of sources and pathways that exist across different temporal and spatial scales. Further adding to the difficulty in managing nutrient pollution is that it is a global, rural, and urban problem. A systems approach can improve nutrient management by incorporating technological, environmental, and societal considerations. This approach can consider valuation of monetized and nonmonetized co-benefits and the inherent consequences that make up a nutrient management program. In this introduction to a special collection of papers on nutrient pollution, we describe several systems frameworks that can be used to support nutrient management and evaluation of system performance as it relates to impacts, then highlight several attributes and barriers of nutrient management that point to the need for a systems framework, and conclude with thoughts on implementing systems approaches to nutrient management with effective community engagement and use of new technologies. This special collection presents results from a USEPA Science to Achieve Results (STAR) initiative to advance solutions to nutrient pollution through innovative and sustainable research and demonstration projects for nutrient management based on a systems approach. These studies evaluate several promising nutrient control technologies for stormwater or domestic wastewater, investigate the effects of agricultural conservation practices and stream restoration strategies on nutrient loads, and discuss several challenges and opportunities-social, policy, institutional, and financial considerations-that can accelerate adoption of reliable technologies to achieve system-level outcomes.

The vision of the U.S. government when they passed the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 was to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters to support f...

Community management is a common approach to securing access to clean water for rural residents. Its failure to sustain water services over acceptable lifetimes has been well-documented, ad...

One-third of children globally have blood lead levels (BLLs) exceeding the US CDC reference value of 5 µg/dL; this value may be as high as one-half for children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Lead exposure occurs through a variety of routes (e.g., water, dust, air), and in LMICs specifically, informal economies (e.g., battery recycling) can drive lead exposures due in part to absent regulation. Previous work by our team identified a ubiquitous source of lead (Pb), in the form of Pb-containing components used in manually-operated pumps, in Toamasina, Madagascar. Characterization of BLLs of children exposed to this drinking water, and identification of additional exposure routes were needed. BLLs were measured for 362 children (aged 6 mo to 6 yr) in parallel with surveying to assess 14 risk factors related to demographics/socioeconomics, diet, use of pitcher pumps, and parental occupations. BLL data were also compared against a recent meta-review of BLLs for LMICs. Median childhood BLL (7.1 µg/dL) was consistent with those of other Sub-Saharan African LMICs (6.8 µg/dL) and generally higher than LMICs in other continents. Risk factors significantly associated (p

Residual biosolids from wastewater treatment facilities and the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW), such as food and yard wastes (FW and YW), are difficult to manage due to increased...

Since the publication of the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987, there have been numerous studies on sustainability. These studies created new knowledge and tools for understanding and managing complex coupled human and natural systems. In this Critical Review, we used a topic modeling technique to analyze 12 526 peer-reviewed research articles and identify the research questions and the approaches that were used or developed in each of the studies. These approaches were then classified by function. The analysis revealed twenty-three categories of research questions and seven functional approach classes-design for sustainability, modeling of complexity, sustainability indicators, life cycle sustainability assessment, decision making support, sustainability governance, and engagement-each of which is described here as an individual approach or tool within a larger sustainability toolbox. The article concludes with a discussion about using the sustainability toolbox as an integrated knowledge system to support transdisciplinary study and decision-making.

Thousands of households in coastal Madagascar that employ pitcher-pump systems to provide water for domestic use may be at risk for harmful exposure to lead (Pb), which leaches from locally manufactured pump system components. The Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic model (IEUBK) can predict blood lead levels (BLLs) in exposed children, thereby characterizing potential health risks. However, it is unclear if the existing methodology of the IEUBK accounts adequately for dietary Pb contributions from contaminated cooking water. Therefore, aims of this study are (1) to develop a method for modifying the IEUBK to account for contaminated cooking water, (2) to quantitatively estimate the importance of dietary Pb uptake (relative to other routes of Pb exposure) in coastal Madagascar, and (3) to estimate BLLs of children in that area, accounting for dietary uptake. Results show that if the Pb concentration in household drinking and cooking water is low (≤ 4 µg/L), Pb in cooking water is not a major route of exposure; predicted BLLs in children are low regardless of whether the dietary component is modified. However, the importance of dietary intake increases with water concentration: if the household aqueous Pb concentration increases from 4 to 24 µg/L, corresponding to the 90th percentile concentration measured in a field campaign, then the estimated dietary contribution to total Pb uptake can exceed 50%. Based on median measured Pb concentrations (11 µg/L), 7–14% of children in households using pitcher-pump systems in coastal Madagascar would present with BLLs > 5 µg/dL (i.e., levels implicated in developmental health issues); however, this number could exceed 90% in households or communities where the water concentration is particularly high. An important conclusion is that the IEUBK should be modified when applied to a developing-world context, where preparation of a starch food staple like rice may present considerable Pb exposure; omitting dietary uptake in cooking water potentially ignores the dominant route of Pb exposure.

Source-separating sanitation systems offer the possibility of recycling nutrients present in wastewater as crop fertilisers. Thereby, they can reduce agriculture's impacts on global sources, sinks, and cycles for nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as their associated environmental costs. However, it has been broadly assumed that people would be reluctant to perform the new sanitation behaviours that are necessary for implementing such systems in practice. Yet, few studies have tried to systematically gather evidence in support of this assumption. To address this gap, we surveyed 3763 people at 20 universities in 16 countries using a standardised questionnaire. We identified and systematically assessed cross-cultural and country-level explanatory factors that were strongly associated with people's willingness to consume food grown using human urine as fertiliser. Overall, 68% of the respondents favoured recycling human urine, 59% stated a willingness to eat urine-fertilised food, and only 11% believed that urine posed health risks that could not be mitigated by treatment. Most people did not expect to pay less for urine-fertilised food, but only 15% were willing to pay a price premium. Consumer perceptions were found to differ greatly by country and the strongest predictive factors for acceptance overall were cognitive factors (perceptions of risks and benefits) and social norms. Increasing awareness and building trust among consumers about the effectiveness of new sanitation systems via cognitive and normative messaging can help increase acceptance. Based on our findings, we believe that in many countries, acceptance by food consumers will not be the major social barrier to closing the loop on human urine. That a potential market exists for urine-fertilised food, however, needs to be communicated to other stakeholders in the sanitation service chain. (C) 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.

International audience; We present here a data set generated from a multinational survey on opinions of university community members on the prospect of consuming food grown with human urine as fertiliser and about their urine recycling perceptions in general. The data set comprises answers from 3,763 university community members (students, faculty/researchers, and staff) from 20 universities in 16 countries and includes demographic variables (age bracket, gender, type of settlement of origin, academic discipline, and role in the university). Questions were designed based on Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour to elicit information about three components of behavioural intention—attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. Survey questions covered perceived risks and benefits (attitudes), perceptions of colleagues (injunctive social norm) and willingness to consume food grown with cow urine/faeces (descriptive social norm), and willingness to pay a price premium for food grown with human urine as fertiliser (perceived behavioural control). We also included a question about acceptable urine recycling and disposal options and assessed general environmental outlook via the 15-item revised New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale. Data were collected through a standardised survey instrument translated into the relevant languages and then administered via an online form. Invitations to the survey were sent by email to university mailing lists or to a systematic sample of the university directory. Only a few studies on attitudes towards using human urine as fertiliser have been conducted previously. The data described here, which we analysed in “Willingness among food consumers at universities to recycle human urine as crop fertiliser: Evidence from a multinational survey” [1], may be used to further understand potential barriers to acceptance of new sanitation systems based on wastewater source separation and urine recycling and can help inform the design of future sociological studies.

Onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS) are significant nonpoint sources of nutrients to surface and groundwater worldwide. Advanced OWTS are challenged by highly transient nutrient load...

The efficiencies of removing or recovering nitrogen and phosphorus in widely implemented small-scale tubular anaerobic digesters are not well understood, as the technology is primarily promoted for its recovery of energy, not nutrients. The purpose of this study was to use nutrient mass balances to assess the fate of nitrogen and phosphorus in two tubular anaerobic digesters, specifically designed to digest animal manure, that were integrated with a conical batch reactor to precipitate struvite (MgNH4PO4) from the digester effluent. The field study showed that locally available products, bittern and soda ash, can be used as a magnesium source and for pH adjustment (respectively) in the struvite precipitation reactor. Results from the mass balances showed that PO43- and NH4+ were released from the manure during anaerobic digestion, increasing the concentrations of PO43- and NH4+ in the liquid phase (by 130% and 120%, respectively). Despite this increase in liquid-phase concentrations, average removals were 25% for total phosphorus and 4% for total nitrogen via sedimentation in the digesters. The digesters also removed an average of 87% of total suspended solids and 84% of chemical oxygen demand from the influent waste stream. During struvite precipitation, an average of 79% of PO43--P and 14% of NH4+-N was removed from the digester effluent. Harvested precipitate comprised (by mass) 9.9% Mg, 2.4% N, and 12.8% P, consistent with struvite formation. The treatment system offers dual benefits: improved sanitation and recovery of nutrients as a fertilizer that may also indirectly reduce surface water and groundwater degradation. Quantifying nutrient recovery from small-farm-generated agricultural waste and understanding recovery mechanisms can improve environmental management and facilitate progress toward the achievement of multiple Sustainable Development Goals by improving sanitation, promoting sustainable management of wastes and natural resources, improving food security, and supporting the ecological restoration of local agroecosystems.

Multifunctional crops can simultaneously contribute to multiple societal objectives. As a result, they represent an attractive means for improving rural livelihoods. Moringa oleifera is an example of a multifunctional crop that produces nutritious leaves with uses as food, fodder, and a biostimulant to enhance crop growth. It yields seeds containing a water purifying coagulant and oil with cosmetic uses and possible biofuel feedstock. Despite Moringa oleifera's (and other multifunctional crops') various Food-Energy-Water uses, optimizing the benefits of its multiple uses and livelihood improvements remains challenging. There is a need for holistic approaches capable of assessing the multifunctionality of agriculture and livelihood impacts. Therefore, this paper critically evaluates Moringa oleifera's Food-Energy-Water-Livelihood nexus applications to gain insight into the tradeoffs and synergies among its various applications using a systems thinking approach. A systems approach is proposed as a holistic thinking framework that can help navigate the complexity of a crop's multifunctionality. The “Success to the Successful” systems archetype was adopted to capture the competition between the need for leaf yields and seed yields. In areas where there is energy and water insecurity, Moringa oleifera seed production is recommended for its potential to coproduce oil, the water purifying coagulant, and a residue that can be applied as a fertilizer. In areas where food insecurity is an issue, focusing on leaf production would be beneficial due to its significance in augmenting food for human consumption, animal feed, and its use as a biostimulant to increase crop yields. A causal loop diagram was found to effectively map the interconnections among the various uses of Moringa oleifera and associated livelihood improvements. This framework provides stakeholders with a conceptual decision-making tool that can help maximize positive livelihood outcomes. This approach can also be applied for improved management of other multifunctional crops.

Lead (Pb) exposure through water contamination is an important issue at the intersection of public health and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). Behavior-change programs designed to address this pressing problem rarely take a behavioral-science-informed approach, nor do they consider the role of intermediate players who often influence and support behavior change. Social marketing segments the population and focuses on the consumer/user throughout program development and implementation. To illustrate the social marketing process, this cross-sectional, qualitative design study investigates the use of Pb in the construction and maintenance of household pitcher pumps for potable water in Madagascar. A sample of 18 technicians were interviewed on their current practices, motivators, barriers, and communication channels for knowledge exchange. The results reveal the importance of peers, those considered experts or “market mavens”, and the need for information on the dangers of Pb as an outdated practice for any future intervention. This study advances the notion of a design shift within engineering WASH projects, whereby social/behavioral approaches are used to consider the needs, concerns, and current behaviors of the consumer. We also advocate for engaging intermediate players who often influence behavior change in the rollout of an engineering innovation.

Cities are coming under increasing pressure to minimize energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, drinking water utilities must improve the efficiency of their management systems while guaranteeing a clean effluent that satisfies drinking water standards. One possible solution is via smart growth, an urban development paradigm with the goal of reducing the environmental impact of urbanization. Therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of smart growth on the operational energy of drinking water distribution. Projected water use in Tampa’s drinking water service area was estimated based on several urban growth projections. Then, each scenario’s associated projected water consumption is integrated in an EPANET simulation of Tampa’s water distribution system for the subsequent estimation of the operational energies of drinking water distribution. Results show that smart growth has no exclusive influence on the operational energy of water supply. However, location of added demand relative to the location of the water treatment plant has more of an influence on the operational energy. Also, smart growth in the City of Tampa Water Service Area is responsible for a decrease in per-capita residential water and energy use of about 6–10% and 0.5–6.2% respectively. In conclusion, smart growth in areas near the water treatment facility may minimize water-related energy use.

Shea butter, an edible oil and lotion produced primarily by women in over twenty-one countries in sub-Saharan Africa and consumed locally and exported internationally, can contribute considerably to achievement of several United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study investigated the importance of shea butter to women and their families for food security, household economy, women’s empowerment, and social capital. It highlights the vital social value of shea butter in cooperative labor for production, gifting customs among women, and traditional and religious ceremonies. In addition, this study identifies critical opportunities for and obstacles to further market expansion. Based on a mixed methods approach employed in Mali from 2009 to 2014, this study included participant observation, interviews, surveys, and focus group discussions as well as shea tree mapping and weighing of shea and firewood. Major challenges that exist for shea market expansion and food security potential include climate change and globalization of other competing world edible oils. Nevertheless, there are promising opportunities for the shea market with the extensive shea tree distribution, growth of consumer support for environmentally and socially conscious products, and capacity building efforts of rural shea nut collectors and butter producers by the Global Shea Alliance.

Two important and large non-point sources of nitrogen in residential areas that adversely affect water quality are stormwater runoff and effluent from on-site treatment systems. These sources are challenging to control due to their variable flow rates and nitrogen concentrations. Denitrifying bioreactors that employ a lignocellulosic wood chip medium contained within a saturated (anoxic) zone are relatively new technology that can be implemented at the local level to manage residential non-point nitrogen sources. In these systems, wood chips serve as a microbial biofilm support and provide a constant source of organic substrate required for denitrification. Denitrifying wood chip bioreactors for stormwater management include biofilters and bioretention systems modified to include an internal water storage zone; for on-site wastewater, they include upflow packed bed reactors, permeable reactive barriers, and submerged wetlands. Laboratory studies have shown that these bioreactors can achieve nitrate removal efficiencies as high as 80–100% but could provide more fundamental insight into system design and performance. For example, the type and size of the wood chips, hydraulic loading rate, and dormant period between water applications affects the hydrolysis rate of the lignocellulosic substrate, which in turn affects the amount and bioavailability of dissolved organic carbon for denitrification. Additional field studies can provide a better understanding of the effect of varying environmental conditions such as ambient temperature, precipitation rates, household water use rates, and idle periods on nitrogen removal performance. Long-term studies are also essential for understanding operations and maintenance requirements and validating mathematical models that integrate the complex physical, chemical, and biological processes occurring in these systems. Better modeling tools could assist in optimizing denitrifying wood chip bioreactors to meet nutrient reduction goals in urban and suburban watersheds.

An in-line PVC chlorinator can be an appropriate water disinfection technology to inactivate pathogens and improve water quality in community-managed water supply systems. Free chlorine residual was measured at five locations after the insertion of one chlorine tablet into an in-line PVC chlorinator and, in a second experiment, after the insertion of three chlorine tablets. The Ct (concentration × time) method for disinfection was used to compare the measured free chlorine residual with the residual required to inactivate a recommended percentage of common pathogens found in gravity-flow water systems in the developing world. The two operating conditions, each with a contact time of 56.6 minutes, had a free chlorine residual required to disinfect all viruses and bacteria considered in this study but not above the 0.27 mg/L needed to inactivate the protozoa Giardia lamblia, a common pathogen in developing countries that causes diarrhoea. The research suggests that an in-line PVC chlorinator can be a simple...

This study improves the global application of methods and analyses, especially Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), that properly incorporates environmental impacts of firewood and a social sustainability indicator (human energy) as tools for sustainable human development. Specifically shea butter production processes, common throughout sub-Saharan Africa and crucial to food security, environmental sustainability, and women's empowerment, are analyzed. Many economic activities in the world rely on firewood for energy and labor that aren't included in traditional LCAs. Human energy (entirely from women) contributed 25-100% of shea butter production processes (2000-6100kJ/kg of shea butter) and mechanized production processes had reduced human energy without considerably greater total energy. Firewood accounted for 94-100% of total embodied energy (103 and 172MJ/kg of shea butter for improved and traditional shea butter production processes respectively) and global warming potential and 18-100% of human toxicity of the production processes. Implementation of improved cookstoves modeled in this study could reduce: (1) global warming potential by 78% (from 18 to 4.1kg CO2 eq/kg and 11 to 2.4kg CO2 eq/kg of shea butter for the traditional and improved processes respectively), (2) the embodied energy of using firewood by 52% (from 170 to 82MJ/kg and 103 to 49MJ/kg for the traditional and improved processes respectively), and (3) human toxicity by 83% for the non-mechanized traditional and improved processes (from 0.041 to 0.0071 1,4 DB eq/kg and 0.025 to 0.0042 1,4 DB eq/kg respectively). In addition, this is the first study to compare Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA) and process-based LCA in a developing country and evaluate five traditional and improved shea butter production processes over different impact categories. Overall, this study developed a framework to evaluate and improve processes for achievement of the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 particularly to obtain food security.

Bioretention systems are efficient at removing particulates, metals, and hydrocarbons from stormwater runoff. However, managing dissolved nitrogen (N) species (dissolved organic N, NH4+, NO2−, NO3−) is a challenge for these systems. This paper reports the results of a long-term field study comparing N removal of: 1) a modified bioretention system that included an internal water storage zone containing wood chips to promote denitrification and 2) a conventional bioretention system. The systems were studied, without and with plants, under varying hydraulic loading rates (HLRs) and antecedent dry conditions (ADCs). Both bioretention designs were efficient at removing NH4+ (83% modified, 74% conventional), while removal of NOx (NO2−-N + NO3−-N) was significantly higher in the modified system (81% modified, 29% conventional). Results show that the addition of an internal water storage zone promotes denitrification, resulting in lower effluent TN concentrations (

Engineered struvite precipitation (ESP) is now a common procedure to recover phosphorus and nitrogen from waste streams such as wastewater-treatment-plant sidestreams, urine, landfill leach...