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We use a radiative–conductive–convective model to assess the height of Pluto’s troposphere, as well as surface pressure and surface radius, from stellar occultation data from the years 1988, 2002, and 2006. The height of the troposphere, if it exists, is less than 1 km for all years analyzed. Pluto has at most a planetary boundary layer and not a troposphere. As in previous analyses of Pluto occultation light curves, we find that the surface pressure is increasing with time, assuming that latitude and longitude variations in Pluto’s atmosphere are negligible. The surface pressure is found to be slightly higher ( 12.5 - 2.4 + 1.9 μbar in 1988, 18.0 - 1.7 + 11 μbar in 2002, and 18.5 ± 4.7 μbar in 2006) than in our previous analyses with the troposphere excluded. The surface radius is determined to be 1173 - 10 + 20 km . Comparison of the minimum reduced chi-squared values between the best-fit radiative–conductive–convective (i.e., troposphere-included) model and best-fit radiative–conductive (i.e., troposphere-excluded) shows that the troposphere-included model is only a slightly better fit to the data for all 3 years. Uncertainties in the small-scale physical processes of Pluto’s lower atmosphere and consequently the functional form of the model troposphere lend more confidence to the troposphere-excluded results.

We use a radiative–conductive model to least-squares fit Pluto stellar occultation light curve data. This model predicts atmospheric temperature based on surface temperature, surface pressure, surface radius, and CH4 and CO mixing ratios, from which model light curves are to be calculated. The model improves upon previous techniques for deriving Pluto’s atmospheric thermal structure from stellar occultation light curves by calculating temperature (as a function of height) caused by heating and cooling by species in Pluto’s atmosphere, instead of a general assumption that temperature follows a power law with height or some other idealized function. We are able to fit for model surface radius, surface pressure, and CH4 mixing ratio with one of the 2006 datasets and for surface pressure and CH4 mixing ratio for other datasets from the years 1988, 2002, 2006, and 2008. It was not possible to fit for CO mixing ratio and surface temperature because the light curves are not sensitive to these parameters. We determine that the model surface radius, under the assumption of a stratosphere only (i.e. no troposphere) model in radiative–conductive balance, is 1180 - 10 + 20 km . The CH4 mixing ratio results are more scattered with time and are in the range of 1.8–9.4 × 10−3. The surface pressure results show an increasing trend from 1988 to 2002, although it is not as dramatic as the factor of 2 from previous studies.

Observations of the 2007 March 18 occultation of the star P445.3 (2UCAC 25823784; R = 15.3) by Pluto were obtained at high time resolution at five sites across the western United States and reduced to produce light curves for each station using standard aperture photometry. Global models of Pluto’s upper atmosphere are fitted simultaneously to all resulting light curves. The results of these model fits indicate that the structure of Pluto’s upper atmosphere is essentially unchanged since the previous occultation observed in 2006, leading to a well-constrained measurement of the atmospheric half-light radius at 1291 ± 5 km. These results also confirm that the significant increase in atmospheric pressure detected between 1988 and 2002 has ceased. Inversion of the Multiple Mirror Telescope Observatory light curves with unprecedented signal-to-noise ratios reveals significant oscillations in the number density, pressure, and temperature profiles of Pluto’s atmosphere. Detailed analysis of this highest resolution light curve indicates that these variations in Pluto’s upper atmospheric structure exhibit a previously unseen oscillatory structure with strong correlations of features among locations separated by almost 1200 km in Pluto’s atmosphere. Thus, we conclude that these variations are caused by some form of large-scale atmospheric waves. Interpreting these oscillations as Rossby (planetary) waves allows us to establish an upper limit of less than 3ms −1 for horizontal wind speeds in the sampled region (radius 1340–1460 km) of Pluto’s upper atmosphere.

The 2006 June 12 occultation of the star P384.2 (2UCAC 26039859) by Pluto was observed from five sites in southeastern Australia with high-speed imaging photometers that produced time-series CCD images. Light curves were constructed from the image time series and fit by least-squares methods with model light curves. A new modeling procedure is presented that allows a simultaneous fit of the atmospheric parameters for Pluto and the astrometric parameters for the occultation to all of the light curves. Under the assumption of a clear atmosphere and using this modeling procedure to establish the upper atmosphere boundary condition, immersion and emersion temperature profiles were derived by inversion of the Siding Spring light curve, which had our best signal-to-noise ratio. Above ~1230 km radius, atmospheric temperatures are ~100 K and decrease slightly with altitude—the same as observed in 1988 and 2002. Below 1210 km, the temperature abruptly decreases with altitude (gradients ~2.2 K km-1), which would reach the expected N2 surface-ice temperature of ~40 K in the 1158-1184 km radius range. This structure is similar to that observed in 2002, but a much stronger thermal gradient (or stronger extinction) is implied by the 1988 light curve (which shows a "kink" or "knee" at 1210 km). The temperature profiles derived from inversion of the present data show good agreement with a physical model for Pluto's atmosphere selected from those presented by Strobel et al. (1996). Constraints derived from the temperature profiles (and considering the possibility of a deep troposphere) yield a value of 1152 ± 32 km for Pluto's surface radius. This value is compared with surface-radius values derived from the series of mutual occultations and eclipses that occurred in 1985-1989, and the limitations of both types of measurements for determining Pluto's surface radius are discussed. The radius of Pluto's atmospheric shadow at the half-intensity point is 1207.9 ± 8.5 km, the same as obtained in 2002 within measurement error. Values of the shadow radius cast by Pluto's atmosphere in 1988, 2002, and 2006 favor frost migration models in which Pluto's surface has low thermal inertia. Those models imply a substantial atmosphere when New Horizons flies by Pluto in 2015. Comparison of the shape of the stellar occultation light curves in 1988, 2002, and 2006 suggests that atmospheric extinction, which was strong in 1988 (15 months before perihelion), has been dissipating.

Occultations of stars by small bodies in the outer solar system are opportunities to make high- resolution measurements of their geometries and orbital elements and to detect or probe their atmospheres. Such events are limited in space and time, so it is desirable to deploy highly capable camera systems on multiple fixed and/or portable telescopes anywhere in the world, potentially on short notice. Similar considerations apply to planetary transits and solar eclipses. We have designed a camera system called POETS (Portable Occultation, Eclipse, and Transit System), which is optimized for occultation and related observations, and have assembled five such systems. The core of this system is the Andor Technology DV-887 (now DU-897) frame-transfercamera, featuring a high frame rate, minimal dead time, high quantum efficiency, and low read noise. An electron- multiplying mode lowers effective read noise to below 1 e ! pixel ! 1 and is capable of photon counting. Each POETS includes a compact GPS timing system with microsecond accuracy, and a high-performance computer system capable of sustained fast frame rates. Each POETS is designed to be transportable as carry-on luggage and is adaptable to a wide variety of sites. POETS were deployed for the first time for the 2005 July 11 Charon occultation event, and they performed extremely well on telescopes with apertures from 0.6 to 6.5 m. Three POETS were subsequently deployed for the 2006 March 29 total solar eclipse, and five for the 2006 June 12 Pluto occultation.

The 2005 July 11 C313.2 stellar occultation by Charon was observed by three separate research groups, including our own, at observatories throughout South America. Here, the published timings from the three data sets have been combined to more accurately determine the mean radius of Charon: 606.0 +/- 1.5 km. Our analysis indicates that a slight oblateness in the body (0.006 +/- 0.003) best matches the data, with a confidence level of 86%. The oblateness has a pole position angle of 71.4 deg +/- 10.4 deg and is consistent with Charon's pole position angle of 67 deg. Charon's mean radius corresponds to a bulk density of 1.63 +/- 0.07 g/cm3, which is significantly less than Pluto's (1.92 +/- 0.12 g/cm3). This density differential favors an impact formation scenario for the system in which at least one of the impactors was differentiated. Finally, unexplained differences between chord timings measured at Cerro Pachon and the rest of the data set could be indicative of a depression as deep as 7 km on Charon's limb., 25 pages including 4 tables and 2 figures. Submitted to the Astronomical Journal on 2006 Feb 03

We present photometric and astrometric results from four epochs of ground-based observations at the Magellan telescopes of the Kuiper belt binary 2003QY90. Resolved observations show both components to be highly variable and often of nearly equal brightness, causing difficulty in distinguishing between the primary and secondary components for observations spaced widely in time. Resolved lightcurve observations on one night show one component to have a single-peaked rotation period of 3.4 ± 1.1 h and a peak-to-peak amplitude of 0.34 ± 0.12 mag . The other component exhibits a less constrained lightcurve, with a single-peaked rotation period of 7.1 ± 2.9 h and a peak-to-peak amplitude of 0.90 ± 0.36 mag . Under the assumption of equal albedos, the diameter ratio is 1.25 ± 0.11 in the Sloan i ′ filter. While we cannot determine an orbit from our four distinct epochs of observation (due to ambiguity in component identification), we place limits on the orbital period of the system of 300–600 days, we find a minimum semi-major axis of 13,092 km for a circular orbit and a system mass range of ( 2.3 – 18.0 ) × 10 17 kg depending on the identification of components in our observations.

Recent dynamical analyses of the Kuiper belt have introduced a rigorous classification scheme, determined the mean orbital plane, and identified “Core” and “Halo” populations as a function of inclination with respect to this plane (Elliot, J.L., Kern, S.D., Clancy, K.B., Gulbis, A.A.S., Millis, R.L., Buie, M.W., Wasserman, L.H., Chiang, E.I., Jordan, A.B., Trilling, D.E., Meech, K.J., 2005. Astron. J. 129, 1117–1162). Here, we use new observations and existing data to investigate the colors of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) within this framework. With respect to the bulk KBO color distribution (all objects for which we have B – V and V – R colors; median B – R = 1.56 ), we find that the population of objects classified following (Elliot, J.L., Kern, S.D., Clancy, K.B., Gulbis, A.A.S., Millis, R.L., Buie, M.W., Wasserman, L.H., Chiang, E.I., Jordan, A.B., Trilling, D.E., Meech, K.J., 2005. Astron. J. 129, 1117–1162) as Classical tends to be red ( B – R > 1.56 ) while the Scattered Near population is mostly neutral ( B – R 1.56 ). Colors of Scattered Extended and Resonant objects are consistent with the bulk distribution. Separating objects into specific resonances demonstrates that the color of the Resonant sample is dominated by KBOs in the 3:2 resonance, which is consistent with previous findings. Unlike the objects in the 3:2 resonance, however, the majority of objects in the 5:2 resonance are neutral and all but one of the objects in the 4:3, 5:3, 7:4, 2:1, and 7:3 resonances are red. In particular, the objects in the 7:4 resonance are remarkably red. We find that the colors of KBOs in the Core (low-inclination) and Halo (high-inclination) are statistically different, with Core objects being primarily red and Halo objects having a slight tendency to be neutral. Notably, virtually all of the non-Resonant Core objects are red. This combination of low inclination, unperturbed orbits and red colors in the Core may be indicative of a relic grouping of objects.

We estimate the frequency of widely spaced (separations greater than 05) Kuiper Belt binaries (KBBs) from surveys for new Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) with the Deep Ecliptic Survey and through recovery observations for newly discovered KBOs at the Magellan telescopes. We find the frequency of KBBs versus discovery separation to be related by an inverse power law when combining our results with those for the fraction of close binaries (separations less than 05) found in the literature. For wide separations, our data and the resulting model agree with the model proposed by Goldreich et al. in 2002. However, including the frequency at the smallest separation rules out the semimajor-axis dependence of the Goldreich et al. model at the 99% confidence level, indicating that there is likely a turnover in the distribution at very close separations, or that the number of close binaries has been underestimated. In either case, the binary-frequency distribution favors binary formation models invoking gravitational rather than physical interactions—such as those proposed by Goldreich et al. and Astakhov et al. (2005).

Stellar occultations, when a Solar System object passes between us and a star and blocks its light, are eagerly awaited by astronomers as they provide a chance to make measurements that are not normally possible. It had been 25 years since a solitary observation of a stellar occultation by Pluto's moon Charon. But on 11 July 2005 another occurred and this time observatories across South America were ideally placed to track it. The resulting haul of data has been used to obtain an accurate measure of Charon's radius, of close to 605 km, and to establish an upper limit (a rather low one) on the density of its atmosphere. Visit tinyurl.com/9c56s for a QuickTime movie of the event. The physical characteristics of Pluto and its moon, Charon, provide insight into the evolution of the outer Solar System. Although previous measurements have constrained the masses of these bodies1,2, their radii and densities have remained uncertain. The observation of a stellar occultation by Charon in 1980 established a lower limit on its radius of 600 km (ref. 3) (later refined to 601.5 km; ref. 4) and suggested a possible atmosphere4. Subsequent, mutual event modelling yielded a range of 600–650 km (ref. 5), corresponding to a density of 1.56 ± 0.22 g cm-3 (refs 2, 5). Here we report multiple-station observations of a stellar occultation by Charon. From these data, we find a mean radius of 606 ± 8 km, a bulk density of 1.72 ± 0.15 g cm-3, and rock-mass fraction 0.63 ± 0.05. We do not detect a significant atmosphere and place 3σ upper limits on atmospheric number densities for candidate gases. These results seem to be consistent with collisional formation for the Pluto–Charon system in which the precursor objects may have been differentiated6, and they leave open the possibility of atmospheric retention by the largest objects in the outer Solar System.

The Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES)?a search optimized for the discovery of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) with the Blanco and Mayall 4 m telescopes at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory?has covered 550 deg2 from its inception in 1998 through the end of 2003. This survey has a mean 50% sensitivity at VR magnitude 22.5. We report here the discoveries of 320 designated KBOs and Centaurs for the period 2000 March through 2003 December and describe improvements to our discovery and recovery procedures. Our data and the data products needed to reproduce our analyses in this paper are available through the NOAO survey database. Here we present a dynamical classification scheme, based on the behavior of orbital integrations over 10 Myr. The dynamical classes, in order of testing, are Resonant, Centaur, Scattered-Near, Scattered-Extended, and Classical. (These terms are capitalized when referring to our rigorous definitions.) Of the 382 total designated KBOs discovered by the DES, a subset of 196 objects have sufficiently accurate orbits for dynamical classification. Summary information is given for an additional 240 undesignated objects also discovered by the DES from its inception through the end of 2003. The number of classified DES objects (uncorrected for observational bias) are Classical, 96; Resonant, 54; Scattered-Near, 24; Scattered-Extended, 9; and Centaur, 13. We use subsets of the DES objects (which can have observational biases removed) and larger samples to perform dynamical analyses on the Kuiper belt. The first of these is a determination of the Kuiper belt plane (KBP), for which the Classical objects with inclinations less than 5? from the mean orbit pole yield a pole at R.A. = 27392 ? 062 and decl. = 6670 ? 020 (J2000), consistent with the invariable plane of the solar system. A general method for removing observational biases from the DES data set is presented and used to find a provisional magnitude distribution and the distribution of orbital inclinations relative to the KBP. A power-law model fit to the cumulative magnitude distribution of all KBOs discovered by the DES in the VR filter yields an index of 0.86 ? 0.10 (with the efficiency parameters for the DES fitted simultaneously with the population power law). With the DES sensitivity parameters fixed, we derive power-law indices of 0.74 ? 0.05, 0.52 ? 0.08, and 0.74 ? 0.15, respectively, for the Classical, Resonant, and Scattered classes. Plans for calibration of the DES detection efficiency function and DES magnitudes are discussed. The inclination distribution confirms the presence of hot and cold populations; when the geometric sin i factor is removed from the inclination distribution function, the cold population shows a concentrated core with a full width at half-maximum of approximately 46, while the hot population appears as a halo, extending beyond 30?. The inclination distribution is used to infer the KBO distribution in the sky, as a function of latitude relative to the KBP. This inferred latitude distribution is reasonably consistent with the latitude distribution derived from direct observation, but the agreement is not perfect. We find no clear boundary between the Classical and Scattered classes either in their orbital inclinations with respect to the KBP or in their power-law indices in their respective magnitude distributions. This leaves open the possibility that common processes have shaped the distribution of orbital parameters for the two classes.

Processes relevant to Pluto’s atmosphere are discussed, and our current knowledge is summarized, including results of two stellar occultations by Pluto that were observed in 2002. The question of whether other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) may have bound atmospheres is considered, and observational indicators for KBO atmospheres are described. The definitive detection of a KBO atmosphere could be established with targeted stellar-occultation observations. These data can also establish accurate diameters for these objects and be used to detect possible nearby companions. Strategies for acquiring occultation data with portable, airborne, and fixed telescopes are evaluated in terms of the number of KBO occultations per year that should be observable. For the sample of 29 currently known KBOs with H ≤ 5.2, (radius ≤ 300 km for a geometric albedo of 0.04), we expect about 4 events per year would yield good results for a (stationary) 6.5-m telescope. A network of portable 0.36-m telescopes should be able to observe 6 events per year, and a 2.5-m airborne telescope would have about 200 annual opportunities to observe KBO occultations.

We report here initial results of the Deep Ecliptic Survey, an ongoing new search for Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) and Centaurs using the 8K × 8K Mosaic CCD array on the 4 m Mayall Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory. Within the interval covered in this paper, useful observations were obtained during seven nights in 1998 October and November, 1999 April, and 2000 February. We used a novel technique to efficiently find and determine positions of moving objects. Sixty-nine KBOs and Centaurs with apparent magnitudes between 20.6 and approximately the 24th magnitude were discovered. Nine or 10 of the newly discovered KBOs appear to be in the 3 : 2 mean motion resonance with Neptune, and four appear to be scattered-disk objects. Three objects were found that may be in the 4 : 3 resonance. Sixty-two of the objects reported here have been observed on at least one additional night and have received designations. Our own follow-up astrometry was done primarily with the WIYN 3.5 m telescope in queue-scheduled mode and with the Steward Observatory 90 inch (2.3 m) telescope. Others, using a variety of telescopes, recovered a significant number of our objects. Although not a primary objective of the survey, positions of all main-belt asteroids, Trojan asteroids, and nearby fast-moving asteroids seen in our data also have been determined, and most have been reported to the Minor Planet Center. Through simulations and analysis of the existing KBO database, we have investigated the uncertainty to be expected in various KBO orbital parameters as a function of the extent of the astrometric coverage. The results indicate that the heliocentric distance of an object and the inclination of its orbit can be narrowly constrained with observations from a single apparition. Accurate determination of semimajor axis and eccentricity, on the other hand, requires astrometric data extending over additional apparitions. Based on the observed distribution of orbital inclinations in our sample, we have estimated the true distribution of orbital inclinations in the Kuiper belt and find it to be similar to that of the short-period comets. This result is consistent with the commonly held belief that the Kuiper belt is the source region of the short-period comets.

On 1995 August 21, Saturn's moon Titan occulted the 13th magnitude star GSC5254-00997. The predawn event was observed at 2.3 μm with the NASA 3.0-m Infrared Telescope Facility. We measured the average atmospheric scale height between latitudes 50°S and 67°S by fitting isothermal models to the immersion portion of the occultation lightcurve. Within the altitude range of 300 to 500 km, we find an isothermal scale height of Titan's sunset atmosphere of 55±9 km. Our derived temperature of 180±30 K is consistent with modeled temperature profiles derived from Voyager 1 IRIS observations (A. Coustenis and B. Bezard 1995, Icarus 115 , 126–140) and the 28 Sagittarii occultation event (W. B. Hubbard et al. 1993, Astron. Astrophys. 269 , 541–563). The atmospheric albedo asymmetry due to low level haze (Caldwell et al. 1992, Icarus 96 , 1–9) is inferred from the difference in Titan's center-of-light (determined from precise astrometric measurements of images of Titan and the star before and after the occultation) and the actual center of Titan (determined from the occultation analysis). We find the southern hemisphere to be brighter than the northern hemisphere, a result consistent with Combes et al. (1997, Icarus 129 , 482–497), Gibbard et al. (1999, Icarus 139 , 189–201), and Smith et al. (1996 Icarus , 119 , 336–349).

We observed a stellar occultation of the star U149 by Uranus from Lowell Observatory and the IRTF on Mauna Kea on November 6, 1998. The temperatures derived from isothermal fits to the Lowell lightcurves are 116.7±7.9 K for immersion, and 124.8±15.5 K for emersion. The secular increase in temperature seen during the period 1977–1983 has reversed. Furthermore, the rate of decrease (≥1.2 K/yr) cannot be explained solely by radiative cooling. Although the temperature structure of Uranus' upper atmosphere may be related to seasonal effects (e.g., the subsolar latitude) or local conditions (e.g., diurnally averaged insolation), these observations suggest nonradiative influences on the temperature, such as adiabatic heating/cooling or thermal conduction.

We used CCD (charge coupled device) astrometric data to predict where the occultation path of the star Tr 176 was located, on July 18, 1997. It could be seen from northern Australia and the southern section of North America. We set up an array of portable and mixed telescopes which had high-speed photometric equipment to observe the occultation. Goals included the following: (1) mapping the central flash; (2) obtaining light curves for the signal-to-noise ratio; (3) acquiring light curves from Triton's disk. We combined these with data from others to find the radius and geometry of the half-light surface of the atmosphere, as well as the equivalent-isothermal temperature latitudes below the occultation on Triton.

The Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope was used to scan the sky in search of occultation candidates through which the Centaur 10199 Chariklo (formerly 1997 CU26) will pass in 1999–2005. Positions for 96,397 stars (magnitudes 7.5 < V < 17.3) were determined using differential reductions to the ACT catalog of star positions and proper motions, and accuracies of ±30 mas were achieved for well-exposed images. The ephemeris for 10199 Chariklo was improved by including the new positions presented in this paper and, second, by correcting older positions taken from the literature for systematic errors. During this time period, 10199 Chariklo passes within 2'' of 117 of these stars, which are identified as occultation candidates in this paper. Among these, 28 candidates have magnitudes V < 15.0, making them the best choices for observing programs using portable telescopes. Circumstances for each occultation are given. Because the angular radius of 10199 Chariklo is only about 15 mas, the astrometry provided in this paper is only accurate enough for identifying possible occultation events and is not sufficient for predicting individual shadow paths across the surface of Earth, although representative cases are given. Last-minute astrometry with a large-aperture telescope will be needed to refine each prediction.

We have completed a search for candidates for occultations by Pluto and Charon over the years 2000 through 2009. Using the DE405 ephemeris and the Plu006 orbit model for Pluto and Charon, we searched for stars that lie within 10 of their respective apparent motions. The images used were CCD strip scans taken at the George R. Wallace Astrophysical Observatory, reaching a depth of 15th to 17th magnitude. As Pluto-Charon enter the Galactic plane, a dramatic increase in the number of stellar appulses will occur. We identify 486 appulses by Pluto and 479 appulses by Charon over this period, with the frequency peaking in 2007. Further astrometry will be necessary to determine which of these appulses will have minimum separations small enough (less than 034 for Pluto or 031 for Charon) to produce an occultation visible from Earth.

As part of our ongoing program of predictions and observations of stellar occultations by solar system bodies, we have completed a search for candidates for occultations by Triton over the decade 2000 to 2009. Star positions near Triton's projected orbit as determined by the DE405 ephemeris and NEP016 orbit model were measured on (unfiltered) CCD strip scans recorded with the 0.6 m telescope at the George R. Wallace Astrophysical Observatory to a depth of 16th to 18th magnitude, depending on the quality of individual strip scans. Within 10 of the predicted orbit of Triton during this period, 128 stars were found, including 12 stars brighter than 14th magnitude. Only appulses with geocentric minimum separations of less than about 037 will result in an occultation visible from Earth, but potential errors in the ephemeris and in the positions of our candidates preclude accurate prediction of actual occultation events without further astrometry.

The atmospheric structure of Triton in the altitude range 25-150 kilometers shows an unexpectedly steep thermal gradient of 0.26 K per kilometer above 50 kilometer altitude, with a nearly isothermal profile below. The upper part of the profile can be explained by downward conduction of heat deposited by magnetospheric electrons and solar UV. However, the atmospheric temperature below 50 kilometers is too cold for identified radiative processes to dispose of the inferred heat flux (0.0012 erg per square centimeter per second) from the upper atmosphere. This implies that either the atmosphere is not in a steady state and/or an unidentified cooling mechanism is at work in the altitude range 25-50 kilometers. When extrapolated to the surface, the inversion results yield a pressure of 19.0 sup (+1.8) sub (-1.5), mubar, about 5mubar greater than that observed by Voyager.

In search of stellar occultation candidates, the Flagstaff Automatic Scanning Transit Telescope (FASTT) was used to scan the sky through which the Centaur 5145 Pholus will pass during the period 1999–2005. Positions for 98,602 stars (7.0 < V < 17.7) were determined using differential reductions and the ACT catalog of star positions and proper motions, and accuracies of ±20 mas in each coordinate were achieved, except for the faintest stars observed. During the period of our search, Pholus passes within 15 of 100 of these stars, which have been identified as occultation candidates in this paper. Circumstances for the possible occultations are given, including finder charts for the 15 brightest stars. Since the radius of Pholus subtends approximately 10 mas, considerable astrometric effort will be required near the time of a potential event to determine whether it will result in an observable occultation. A stellar occultation observed from multiple sites can be used to determine the precise radius and albedo for this object.

We present an overview of the performance of the High Speed Photometer (HSP), one of the five original instruments on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). As its name implies, the HSP was designed for precise high time resolution photometry from visual to ultraviolet wavelengths; sample times as short as 10.7 μs were possible. Three image dissectors along with 23 different broad‐ and narrowband filters spanning the spectral range from 1200 to 7500 A were used for photometry of stars and galaxies. A fourth image dissector with associated polarization analyzers allowed the measurement of broadband linear polarization at near‐ultraviolet wavelengths. Simultaneous observations in the blue and red could be made using one of the dissectors and a photomultiplier. Except for an instability in the sensitivity of one of the image dissectors and a reduced throughput in a specialized observational mode, the instrument met or exceeded operational specifications until it was removed from HST in 1993 December. The...

We analyze an extensive data set of immersion and emersion lightcurves of the occultation of 28 Sgr by Saturn's atmosphere on 3 July 1989. The data give profiles of number density as a function of altitude at a variety of latitudes, at pressures ranging from about 0.5 to about 20 μbar. The atmosphere is essentially isothermal in this range, with a temperature close to 140 K for an assumed mean molecular weight of 2.135. Owing to favorable ring geometry, an accurate radial scale is available for all observations, and we confirm the substantial equatorial bulge produced by zonal winds of ∼450 m/s first observed in the Voyager radio-occultation experiments. The fact that the bulge is still present at microbar pressures suggests that the equatorial winds persist to high altitudes. According to our radial scale, the 2.4-μbar level, which corresponds to half-flux in the stellar occultations, is at an equatorial radius of 60,960 km. This radial scale is in good agreement with the Voyager radio-occultation data at mbar pressures and allows smooth interpolation of the isothermal structure between the stellar-occultation and radio-occultation regions. We do not have such a smooth interpolation between our data and Voyager ultraviolet occultation data, unless we discard the lowest 200 km of Voyager ultraviolet data. When this is done, we obtain a complete atmospheric model from an equatorial radius of 61,500 km down to an equatorial radius of 60,500 km. This model gives excellent agreement between all 28 Sgr, Voyager, and Pioneer 11 data.

A stellar-occultation light curve for Triton shows asymmetry that can be understood if Triton's middle atmosphere is distorted from spherical symmetry. Although a globally oblate model can explain the data, the inferred atmospheric flattening is so large that it could be caused only by an unrealistic internal mass distribution or highly supersonic zonal winds. Cyclostrophic winds confined to a jet near Triton's northern or southern limbs (or both) could also be responsible for the details of the light curve, but such winds are required to be slightly supersonic. Hazes and clouds in the atmosphere are unlikely to have caused the asymmetry in the light curve.

This paper presents new results about Triton's atmospheric structure from the analysis of all ground-based stellar occultation data recorded to date, including one single-chord occultation recorded on 1993 July 10 and nine occultation lightcurves from the double-star event on 1995 August 14. These stellar occultation observations made both in the visible and in the infrared have good spatial coverage of Triton, including the first Triton central-flash observations, and are the first data to probe the altitude level 20–100 km on Triton. The small-planet lightcurve model of J. L. Elliot and L. A. Young (1992, Astron. J. 103, 991–1015) was generalized to include stellar flux refracted by the far limb, and then fitted to the data. Values of the pressure, derived from separate immersion and emersion chords, show no significant trends with latitude, indicating that Triton's atmosphere is spherically symmetric at ∼50-km altitude to within the error of the measurements; however, asymmetry observed in the central flash indicates the atmosphere is not homogeneous at the lowest levels probed (∼20-km altitude). From the average of the 1995 occultation data, the equivalent-isothermal temperature of the atmosphere is 47 ± 1 K and the atmospheric pressure at 1400-km radius (∼50-km altitude) is 1.4 ± 0.1 μbar. Both of these are not consistent with a model based on Voyager UVS and RSS observations in 1989 (D. F. Strobel, X. Zhu, M. E. Summers, and M. H. Stevens, 1996, Icarus 120, 266–289). The atmospheric temperature from the occultation is 5 K colder than that predicted by the model and the observed pressure is a factor of 1.8 greater than the model. In our opinion, the disagreement in temperature and pressure is probably due to modeling problems at the microbar level, since measurements at this level have not previously been made. Alternatively, the difference could be due to seasonal change in Triton's atmospheric structure.

We obtained Pluto's spectrum using the CSHELL echelle spectrograph at NASA's IRTF on Mauna Kea, on 25-26 May 1992, with a spectral resolution of 13,300. The spectral range (5998 - 6018 per centimeter, or 1661.8 - 1666.9 nm) includes the R(0) and the Q(1) - Q(9) lines of the 2v3 band of methane. The resulting spectrum shows the first detection of gaseous methane on Pluto, with a column height of 1.20 (sup +3.15) (sub -0.87) cm-A (3.22 (sup +8.46) (sub -2.34) x 10(exp 19) molecule per square centimeter)).

could be determined separately, this technique examines the motion of the center of light of the blended Pluto‐Charon ies. Given their radii, the densities of the two bodies can image. We compute the offsets of the observed center-of-light be computed. These densities can be used to compute the position of Pluto‐Charon from the ephemeris position of the ratio of rock to ice of each body, providing clues to relative system and fit these offsets to a model of the Pluto‐Charon abundances in the outer Solar System. McKinnon (1989) system. The least-squares fits to the five data sets agree within showed that the density of Charon has implications for the their errors, and the weighted mean mass ratio is 0.117 6 0.006. origin of the binary system: if Charon has a density of The effects of errors in the Charon light fraction, semimajor greater than 1.8 g cm 23 , the angular momentum density of axis, and ephemeris have been examined and are equal to only the binary exceeds the theoretical limit for a stably rotating a small fraction of the formal error from the fit. This result is

The Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) discovered hundreds of Kuiper Belt objects from 1998-2005. Follow-up observations yielded 304 objects with good dynamical classifications (Classical, Scattered, Centaur, or 16 mean-motion resonances with Neptune). The DES search fields are well documented, enabling us to calculate the probability of detecting objects with particular orbital parameters and absolute magnitudes at a randomized point in each orbit. Grouping objects together by dynamical class leads, we estimate the orbital element distributions (a, e, i) for the largest three classes (Classical, 3:2, and Scattered) using maximum likelihood. Using H-magnitude as a proxy for the object size, we fit a power law to the number of objects for 8 classes with at least 5 detected members (246 objects). The best Classical slope is alpha=1.02+/-0.01 (observed from 5, Comment: 26 pages emulateapj, 6 figures, 5 tables, accepted by AJ

▪ Abstract Earth-based stellar occultations probe the temperature, pressure, and number-density profiles of planetary atmospheres in the microbar range with a vertical resolution of a few kilometers. Depending on the occultation data available for a given body and other information, the technique also allows determination of local density variations, extinction by aerosols and molecules, rotation period and zonal winds, atmospheric composition, and the temporal and spatial variability of an atmosphere. A brief quantitative description of the interaction of starlight with a planetary atmosphere is presented, and observational techniques are discussed. Observational results through 1995 are presented for Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Titan, Neptune, Triton, Pluto, and Charon.

Considered as a comet, the object 2060 Chiron is unusual in two respects: it exhibits outbursts at very large distances from the Sun, and its nucleus is much larger than that of any other known comet. It is, however, similar in size to the recently discovered Kuiper-belt objects - a population of objects with orbits beyond Neptune, which are a possible source of short-period comets. This has led to the conjecture that Chiron is related to these objects, but its chaotic orbit has brought it much closer to the Sun. Here we report observations of a recent stellar occultation by Chiron which permit the identification of several features associated with Chiron's coma. The observation of discrete, jet-like features provides evidence that the coma material originates from just few, small active areas, rather than from uniform sublimations, and that the particles in at least one of these features have radii greater than 0.25 microns. The observations also suggest the presence of material in the plane of Chiron's orbit and are consistent with a gravitationally bound coma. Finally, the present data, and those from a previous occultation, constrain the radius of Chiron to lie between 83 and 156 km.

Using the University of Hawaii (UH) 2.2-m telescope, we obtained charge coupled device (CCD) images of Pluto as it passed through a single field of 10 stars during 6 nights of Charon's 6.4-day orbital period. From these data, Charon's orbital semimajor axis is found to be 19,460 +/- 58 km, which is consistent with the recent measurement by Null et al. (1993), of 19,405 +/- 86 km. Our semimajor axis implies a system mass of (14.32 +/- 0.13) x 10(exp 24) g. From the motions of Pluto and Charon around their barycenter, we find that the ratio of Charon's mass to Pluto's is 0.1566 +/- 0.0035, indicating that the bodies both have densities near 2 g/cc. Our ratio is nearly twice that of Null et al., who find a ratio of 0.0837 +/- 0.0147. Possible reasons for the large discrepancy are discussed.

Observations of the 1.4- to 2.4-micrometer spectrum of Pluto reveal absorptions of carbon monoxide and nitrogen ices and confirm the presence of solid methane. Frozen nitrogen is more abundant than the other two ices by a factor of about 50; gaseous nitrogen must therefore be the major atmospheric constituent. The absence of carbon dioxide absorptions is one of several differences between the spectra of Pluto and Triton in this region. Both worlds carry information about the composition of the solar nebula and the processes by which icy planetesimals formed.

The pole direction and radius scale for the ring system of Saturn are presently determined by combining the July 3, 1989 observations of 28 Sgr's occultation by Saturn with Voyager 1 and 2 photopolarimeter occultation measurements. The computation of ring-orbit models is separately conducted via a sky-plane method and a solar system barycentric vector approach; the results obtained by both methods are in excellent agreement. If Voyager trajectory uncertainties are assumed to be negligible, these observations can be used to determine the precession rate of the pole of Saturn about the solar system's invariable pole.

Using data from the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES), we investigate the inclination distributions of objects in the Kuiper Belt. We present a derivation for observational bias removal and use this procedure to generate unbiased inclination distributions for Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) of different DES dynamical classes, with respect to the Kuiper Belt plane. Consistent with previous results, we find that the inclination distribution for all DES KBOs is well fit by the sum of two Gaussians, or a Gaussian plus a generalized Lorentzian, multiplied by sin i. Approximately 80% of KBOs are in the high-inclination grouping. We find that Classical object inclinations are well fit by sin i multiplied by the sum of two Gaussians, with roughly even distribution between Gaussians of widths 2.0[superscript +0.6] [subscript –0.5°] and 8.1[superscript +2.6] [subscript –2.1°]. Objects in different resonances exhibit different inclination distributions. The inclinations of Scattered objects are best matched by sin i multiplied by a single Gaussian that is centered at 19.1[superscript +3.9] [subscript –3.6°] with a width of 6.9[superscript +4.1] [subscript –2.7°]. Centaur inclinations peak just below 20°, with one exceptionally high-inclination object near 80°. The currently observed inclination distribution of the Centaurs is not dissimilar to that of the Scattered Extended KBOs and Jupiter-family comets, but is significantly different from the Classical and Resonant KBOs. While the sample sizes of some dynamical classes are still small, these results should begin to serve as a critical diagnostic for models of solar system evolution., National Science Foundation (U.S.) (Grant AST 07–07609)

We present six new transits of the exoplanet OGLE-TR-111b observed with the Magellan Telescopes in Chile between April 2008 and March 2009. We combine these new transits with five previously published transit epochs for this planet between 2005 and 2006 to extend the analysis of transit timing variations reported for this system. We derive a new planetary radius value of 1.019 +/- 0.026 R_J, which is intermediate to the previously reported radii of 1.067 +/- 0.054 R_J (Winn et al. 2007) and 0.922 +/- 0.057 R_J (Diaz et al. 2008). We also examine the transit timing variation and duration change claims of Diaz et al. (2008). Our analysis of all eleven transit epochs does not reveal any points with deviations larger than 2 sigma, and most points are well within 1 sigma. Although the transit duration nominally decreases over the four year span of the data, systematic errors in the photometry can account for this result. Therefore, there is no compelling evidence for either a timing or a duration variation in this system. Numerical integrations place an upper limit of about 1 M_E on the mass of a potential second planet in a 2:1 mean-motion resonance with OGLE-TR-111b., Comment: 28 pages, 7 tables, 6 figures. Accepted by ApJ

Several dozen Pluto-Charon images were obtained on each of 4 nights with the ProtoCAM on the IRTF, mostly at K (2.2 μm) but also at J (1.2 μm) and H (1.7 μm). The seeing at FWHM ranged from 0.45 to 1.06 arcsec. A two-source image model was fit to the blended images of Pluto and Charon, with the position of Charon and the ratio of its signal to that of Pluto as free parameters. At K, we find Charon to be fainter than Pluto by 1.80±0.09, 2.39±0.05, and 2.09±0.05 mag at lightcurve phases 0.06, 0.42, and 0.95. Combining these magnitudes with combined photometry of the Pluto-Charon system we find apparent K magnitudes for Charon of 15.01 ± 0.08 at lightcurve phase 0.06 and 15.46±0.05 at lightcurve phase 0.42. We conclude that Charon is variable in this filter bandpass. The variation is most likely due to changes in its geometric albedo as a function of longitude.

Walker's (1980) stellar occultation data for Charon are presently fit by a model which encompasses the possibility of differential refraction by an atmosphere, followed by a sudden occultation behind Charon's limb. The 601.5-km Charon radius lower limit thus obtained may serve as a constraint in models of the mutual event data; while the model fits considered support a Charonian atmosphere of indeterminate composition, time resolution is insufficient for certainty and the data may be interpretable as indications of either a slight extinction near Charon or an entirely unidentified and unassociated effect.

HIPO is a special purpose instrument for SOFIA, the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy. It is a high-speed, imaging photometer that will be used for a variety of time-resolved precise photometry observations, including stellar occultations by solar system objects and transits by extrasolar planets. HIPO will also be used during the test program for the SOFIA telescope, a process that began with a series of ground-based tests in 2004. The HIPO requirements, optical design, overall description, and an early look at performance and planned data acquisition modes have appeared in earlier papers (e.g. Dunham, et al., Proc. SPIE 5492, 592-603 (2004)). This paper provides an update to the instrument description, final lab measurements of instrument performance, and a discussion of the data produced by the various observing modes.

Triton, Neptune's largest moon, has been predicted to undergo significant seasonal changes that would reveal themselves as changes in its mean frost temperature. But whether this temperature should at the present time be increasing, decreasing or constant depends on a number of parameters (such as the thermal properties of the surface, and frost migration patterns) that are unknown. Here we report observations of a recent stellar occultation by Triton which, when combined with earlier results, show that Triton has undergone a period of global warming since 1989. Our most conservative estimates of the rate of temperature and surface-pressure increase during this period imply that the atmosphere is doubling in bulk every 10 years, significantly faster than predicted by any published frost model for Triton. Our result suggests that permanent polar caps on Triton play a c dominant role in regulating seasonal atmospheric changes. Similar processes should also be active on Pluto.

The Magellan Telescopes are a collaboration between the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (OCIW), University of Arizona, Harvard University, University of Michigan, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) consisting of two 6.5 meter telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, in the Chilean Andes. The Walter Baade telescope achieved first light in September 2000 and the Landon Clay telescope started science operations in September 2002. In addition to two modified spectroscopic instruments, the Boller and Chivens Spectrograph and the Low Dispersion Survey Spectrograph (LDSS-2), four first generation instruments are now deployed at the Magellan Telescopes. Here we briefly describe the operations and performance of MagIC - a direct imaging CCD camera, MIKE - a double echelle spectrograph, PANIC - a near-IR imager, and IMACS - a multi-purpose, multi-object imaging spectrograph.

UIST is a facility class near-infrared instrument recently commissioned at the UK Infrared Telescope (UKIRT). UIST provides a comprehensive imaging and spectroscopic facility with spatial resolution limited only by the delivered tip-tilt corrected seeing. In addition to long slit spectroscopic modes, UIST includes the first deployable cryogenic integral field unit in a common user instrument. We will present results obtained during the commissioning period in late 2002. These include measurements of the image quality and the sensitivities of the different observing modes of the instrument. We also discuss the use of an instrument-specific telescope pointing-model developed for UIST to allow the instrument to meet the stringent flexure requirements arising from the choice of 0.06arcsec/pixel and 0.12arcsec/pixel plate scales. We pay particular attention to the performance of the image slicing integral field unit (IFU). We will present astronomical results from the first year of UIST operations, during which time UIST carried out diverse programmes, from mineralogical studies of Mars to measuring the mass of the black hole at the centre of the most distant quasar.

HIPO is a special purpose instrument for SOFIA, the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy. It is a high-speed, imaging photometer that will be used for a variety of time-resolved precise photometry observations, including stellar occultations by solar system objects and transits by extrasolar planets. HIPO has two independent CCD detectors and can also co-mount with FLITECAM, an InSb imager and spectrometer, making simultaneous photometry at three wavelengths possible. HIPO's flexible design and high-speed imaging capability make it well suited to carry out initial test observations on the completed SOFIA system, and to this end a number of additional features have been incorporated. Earlier papers have discussed the design requirements and optical design of HIPO. This paper provides an overview of the instrument, describes the instrument's features, and reviews the actual performance, in most areas, of the completed instrument.

Following our discovery of 2001 QT297 as the second known binary Edgeworth—Kuiper Belt Object (EKBO) in October of 2001 [IAUC 7733], we have carried out additional high spatial resolution ground based imaging in October and November of 2001 and July, August, and September of 2002. Using the Raymond and Beverly Sackler Magellan Instant Camera (MagIC) on the Baade and Clay 6.5 m telescopes at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile, we have obtained accurate astro-metric and photometric measurements in the Sloan r′,i′, and g′ filters. Superb seeing conditions and PSF fitting allow an accurate determination of the binary component separation and position angle over time as well as a detailed study of color and temporal variability of the individual components. Here we present a physical characterization of the individual components of 2001 QT297 based on these astrometric, color and variability measurements. We find the primary to exhibit colors about 0.3 magnitudes redder than solar with no evidence for variability. The secondary component, however, exhibits strong variability (~0.6 magnitudes) with a best fit period of 4.7526 ± 0.0007 h for a single peak lightcurve or 9.505 ± 0.001 h for a dual peaked lightcurve. The colors measured for the secondary also suggest variability. Based on a preliminary orbit fit for the pair using observations spanning a one year arc, we are able to estimate a system mass of ~ 3.2 × 1018 kg and provide constraints to the surface albedo of 9–14% for assumed densities between 1 and 2 g/cm3.

The UIST instrument is a 1-5μm Imager Spectrometer for the UKIRT telescope. The instrument has a high spatial resolution, and is designed to critically sample image sizes of 0.24arcsec. The instrument weighs 750kg and measures approximately 1100x1000x700mm. The flexure specification for the instrument is to maintain the image at the slit within 10% of the narrowest slit width, which is 44μm wide. However combined flexure of the instrument and its supporting structure is expected to be many times more than this. To meet the UIST flexure requirements we propose use of an instrument specific component in the telescope pointing model, to correct for repeatable flexure. Two designs for mounting regimes are presented, together with flexure test results and a discussion of the use of a simple pointing correction. The first, flexible, truss design did not meet requirements and was replaced with a rigid truss system. The paper describes some lessons learned during the development of the UIST mounting scheme, which can be applied in other instrument designs.

Stellar occultations--the passing of a relatively nearby body in front of a background star--can be used to probe the atmosphere of the closer body with a spatial resolution of a few kilometres (ref. 1). Such observations can yield the scale height, temperature profile, and other information about the structure of the occulting atmosphere. Occultation data acquired for Pluto's atmosphere in 1988 revealed a nearly isothermal atmosphere above a radius of approximately 1,215 km. Below this level, the data could be interpreted as indicating either an extinction layer or the onset of a large thermal gradient, calling into question the fundamental structure of this atmosphere. Another question is to what extent Pluto's atmosphere might be collapsing as it recedes from the Sun (passing perihelion in 1989 in its 248-year orbital period), owing to the extreme sensitivity of the equilibrium surface pressure to the surface temperature. Here we report observations at a variety of visible and infrared wavelengths of an occultation of a star by Pluto in August 2002. These data reveal evidence for extinction in Pluto's atmosphere and show that it has indeed changed, having expanded rather than collapsed, since 1988.

We revisit the GSC5249-01240 light curve obtained during its occultation by Saturn's North polar region. In addition to refractive scintillations, the power spectrum of intensity fluctuations shows an enhancement of power between refractive and diffractive regimes. We identify this excess power as due to high amplitude spikes in the light curve and suggest that these spikes are due to caustics associated with ray crossing situations. The flux variation in individual spikes follows the expected caustic behavior, including diffraction fringes which we have observed for the first time in a planetary occultation light curve. The presence of caustics in scintillation light curves require an inner scale cut off to the power spectrum of underlying density fluctuations associated with turbulence. Another possibility is the presence of gravity waves in the atmosphere. While occultation light curves previously showed the existence of refractive scintillations, a combination of small projected stellar size and a low relative velocity during the event have allowed us to identify caustics in this occultation. This has led us to re-examine previous data sets, in which we have also found likely examples of caustics., 4 pages, 3 figures; ApJL submitted

The Deep Ecliptic Survey is a project whose goal is to survey a large area of the near-ecliptic region to a faint limiting magnitude (R ~ 24) in search of objects in the outer solar system. We are collecting a large homogeneous data sample from the Kitt Peak Mayall 4-m and Cerro Tololo Blanco 4-m telescopes with the Mosaic prime-focus CCD cameras. Our goal is to collect a sample of 500 objects with good orbits to further our understanding of the dynamical structure of the outer solar system. This survey has been in progress since 1998 and is responsible for 272 designated discoveries as of March 2003. We summarize our techniques, highlight recent results, and describe publically available resources., Comment: Earth, Moon, and Planets, as part of First Decadal Review of the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt special issue, peer-reviewed and accepted