105 results on '"James D. Fry"'
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2. Half-Title Page, Title Page, Copyright
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
3. 4. The jurisprudence of organizations' aspirational values
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
4. 6. Conclusion
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
5. 5. Towards a new jurisprudence of international organizations law
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
6. Index
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
7. 2. The empirics of international organizational principles
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
8. 3. Patterns of authority in international organizations' constitutions
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
9. 1. The principles guiding international organizations
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
10. Contents
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
11. List of organizations studied
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
12. List of figures
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
13. List of abbreviations
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
14. Acknowledgments
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna, and Jean d'Aspremont
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- 2021
15. A reexamination of theoretical arguments that indirect selection on mate preference is likely to be weaker than direct selection
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James D. Fry
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Evolutionary theory ,genetic correlation ,linkage disequilibrium ,models ,natural selection ,quantitative genetics ,Evolution ,QH359-425 - Abstract
Abstract Female preference for male ornaments or displays can evolve by indirect selection resulting from genetic benefits of mate choices, or by direct selection resulting from nongenetic benefits or selection on sensory systems occurring in other contexts. In an influential paper, Kirkpatrick and Barton used a good‐genes model and evolutionary rates estimated from the fossil record to conclude that indirect selection on preference is likely to be weak compared to typical strengths of direct selection. More recent authors have extrapolated from Kirkpatrick and Barton's conclusions to suggest that the presence of preference‐trait genetic correlations in equations for indirect but not direct selection gives a purely theoretical basis to the conclusion that the former is likely to be weaker than the latter. Here, I challenge these views, and argue that the relative importance of direct and indirect selection on preference is an empirical issue that defies simple generalizations. First, I show that Kirkpatrick and Barton based their conclusion on a questionable claim about typical rates of evolution due to direct selection. Second, I argue that claiming that direct selection on preference is stronger than indirect selection because only equations for the latter contain a genetic correlation mistakes the mathematical simplicity with which direct selection is usually represented for evidence regarding its magnitude. By comparing a simple equation for the selection response of preference caused by somatic (“direct”) benefits to Kirkpatrick and Barton's result for the response to indirect selection, I show that indirect selection on preference is not inherently weaker than direct selection. I also point out an important but overlooked reason why selection on preference under the sensory bias hypothesis can be expected to be less effective in the long run than that from either somatic or genetic benefits of mate choices.
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- 2022
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16. The values of international organizations
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, Natasha Pushkarna
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- 2021
17. The limited role of judicial dispute settlement
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James D. Fry and Saroj Nair
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- 2022
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18. 3 Institutional Structure and the Position of Members, 3.3 Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations ( Article 4 of the Charter ), Advisory Opinion, [1948] ICJ Rep 57; Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations , Advisory Opinion, [1950] ICJ Rep 4
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James D, Fry, primary and Agnes, Chong, additional
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- 2016
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19. The values of international organizations
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James D. Fry, Bryane Michael, and Natasha Pushkarna
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- 2021
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20. Deconstructing Dud Disarmament Disputes
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James D. Fry and Saroj Nair
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Disarmament ,Law ,Political science ,Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality ,Safety Research - Abstract
This Article explores the limits of judicial settlement of nuclear-weapon disputes through a case study of the Marshall Islands’ cases against India, Pakistan and the UK before the International Court of Justice in 2016. It posits that judicial settlement is limited mainly by the quality of the arguments and evidence submitted by the disputants, not by any limitations inherent in judicial settlement with such politically sensitive disputes. The lawyers in the Marshall Islands’ cases should have taken greater care in crafting their arguments and in tying them explicitly to Article VI of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its customary equivalent.
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- 2020
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21. Effects of a low dose of ethanol on mating success ofDrosophila melanogastermales: implications for the evolution of ethanol resistance?
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Jing Zhu and James D. Fry
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0106 biological sciences ,0301 basic medicine ,education.field_of_study ,biology ,Population ,Zoology ,biology.organism_classification ,010603 evolutionary biology ,01 natural sciences ,03 medical and health sciences ,030104 developmental biology ,Insect Science ,Sexual selection ,Drosophilidae ,Melanogaster ,Drosophila melanogaster ,Adaptation ,Mating ,education ,Drosophila ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics - Abstract
Ethanol occurs naturally in the decaying fruit in which many species of Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) breed, potentially generating selection for resistance to its toxic and sedating effects. Studies measuring mortality of flies exposed to a range of ethanol concentrations have shown that within Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, populations from temperate regions are more ethanol resistant than ancestral tropical African populations. The high ethanol resistance of temperate D. melanogaster presents a puzzle, however, because breeding and feeding sites in the wild seldom contain enough ethanol to kill even more ethanol-sensitive Afrotropical genotypes. We hypothesize that the ethanol concentrations encountered by temperate populations, though usually sub-lethal, are nonetheless high enough to reduce fitness in other ways, potentially generating indirect selection for genotypes that can survive exposure to unnaturally high ethanol concentrations. As a first step in testing this hypothesis, we compared the effects of a sub-lethal dose of ethanol, comparable to that obtainable from fermenting fruit, on the mating success of males from one European and one Afrotropical population. Ethanol significantly reduced mating success of males from the Afrotropical population, but had no effect on that of males from the European population. We also show that when flies are placed on medium with a realistic concentration of ethanol, considerably more ethanol is absorbed through vapor than through feeding, suggesting that courting males may be unable to avoid being exposed to ethanol. We hypothesize that the higher resistance of temperate populations to being killed by high, unnatural ethanol concentrations may have evolved in part as a correlated response to selection for behavioral insensitivity to natural concentrations.
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- 2018
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22. Ethiopian Exceptionalism and the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission
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James D. Fry
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Power (social and political) ,Exceptionalism ,Political science ,Law ,Commission ,International law ,Boundary (real estate) - Abstract
This article explores the reasons why Ethiopia relied on legal resolution with its territorial boundary dispute with Eritrea when it could have relied on its relative military power to dictate the terms and conditions of peace. It dismisses Ethiopia's familiarity with Western-style legal resolution and its relative lack of nationalism as potential explanations, instead focusing on Ethiopia's general sense of exceptionalism from its history as an African and global leader and as a respecter of international law, among other key factors. Ethiopia's example provides considerable hope that legal resolution can be used more frequently with politically sensitive disputes between states.
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- 2017
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23. Effects of a low dose of ethanol on mating success of
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Jing, Zhu and James D, Fry
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Article - Abstract
Ethanol occurs naturally in the decaying fruit in which many species of Drosophila (Diptera: Drosophilidae) breed, potentially generating selection for resistance to its toxic and sedating effects. Studies measuring mortality of flies exposed to a range of ethanol concentrations have shown that within Drosophila melanogaster Meigen, populations from temperate regions are more ethanol resistant than ancestral tropical African populations. The high ethanol resistance of temperate D. melanogaster presents a puzzle, however, because breeding and feeding sites in the wild seldom contain enough ethanol to kill even more ethanol-sensitive Afrotropical genotypes. We hypothesize that the ethanol concentrations encountered by temperate populations, though usually sub-lethal, are nonetheless high enough to reduce fitness in other ways, potentially generating indirect selection for genotypes that can survive exposure to unnaturally high ethanol concentrations. As a first step in testing this hypothesis, we compared the effects of a sub-lethal dose of ethanol, comparable to that obtainable from fermenting fruit, on the mating success of males from one European and one Afrotropical population. Ethanol significantly reduced mating success of males from the Afrotropical population, but had no effect on that of males from the European population. We also show that when flies are placed on medium with a realistic concentration of ethanol, considerably more ethanol is absorbed through vapor than through feeding, suggesting that courting males may be unable to avoid being exposed to ethanol. We hypothesize that the higher resistance of temperate populations to being killed by high, unnatural ethanol concentrations may have evolved in part as a correlated response to selection for behavioral insensitivity to natural concentrations.
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- 2019
24. Evidence that Environmental Heterogeneity Maintains a Detoxifying Enzyme Polymorphism in Drosophila melanogaster
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James D. Fry and Mahul Chakraborty
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0301 basic medicine ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic ,General Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology ,Genetic Heterogeneity ,03 medical and health sciences ,chemistry.chemical_compound ,Gene Frequency ,Polymorphism (computer science) ,Genetic variation ,Animals ,Selection, Genetic ,Gene ,Alleles ,Enzyme Gene ,Genetics ,Polymorphism, Genetic ,Agricultural and Biological Sciences(all) ,Ethanol ,biology ,Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology(all) ,Genetic heterogeneity ,Acetaldehyde ,biology.organism_classification ,Drosophila melanogaster ,030104 developmental biology ,Biochemistry ,chemistry ,biology.protein ,General Agricultural and Biological Sciences - Abstract
Environmental heterogeneity is thought to be an important process maintaining genetic variation in populations [1-4]: if alternative alleles are favored in different environments, a stable polymorphism can be maintained [1, 5, 6]. This situation has been hypothesized to occur in genes encoding multi-substrate enzymes [7], in which changes that increase activity with one substrate typically decrease activity with others [8-10], but examples of polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are rare. Here, we present evidence that a polymorphism in an enzyme gene in Drosophila melanogaster is maintained by such a trade-off. The mitochondrially localized aldehyde dehydrogenase in D. melanogaster has two important functions: detoxifying acetaldehyde derived from dietary ethanol [11] and detoxifying larger aldehydes produced as byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation [12]. A derived variant of the enzyme, Leu479Phe, is present in moderate frequencies in most temperate populations but is rare in more ethanol-averse tropical populations. Using purified recombinant protein, we show that the Leu-Phe substitution increases turnover rate of acetaldehyde but decreases turnover rate of larger aldehydes. Furthermore, using transgenic fly lines, we show that the substitution increases lifetime fitness on medium supplemented with an ecologically relevant ethanol concentration but decreases fitness on medium lacking ethanol. The strong, opposing selection pressures, coupled with documented highly variable ethanol concentrations in breeding sites of temperate populations, implicate an essential role for environmental heterogeneity in maintaining the polymorphism.
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- 2016
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25. Intertemporality and international investment arbitration: protecting the jurisdiction of established tribunals
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James D. Fry and Odysseas G. Repousis
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Convention ,Jurisdiction ,Political science ,Law ,Bilateral investment treaty ,Arbitration ,Arbitration clause ,Business and International Management ,International law ,Treaty ,State responsibility - Abstract
The backlash against investor–State arbitration is building, to the point that some commentators even talk about termination or amendment of investment treaties in order to strip international arbitral tribunals of their jurisdiction after the arbitration process already has started. This suggestion has been made in the context of the Philip Morris Asia plain packaging ICSID arbitration involving the Australia–Hong Kong bilateral investment treaty (BIT). This suggestion raises a number of interesting issues for international law and dispute settlement, especially in relation to the limits of the intertemporal rule. States are free to agree to amend or terminate treaties, including ones relating to investment, even before they expire. Such amendments or termination do not have retroactive effects unless the parties to the treaty agree otherwise. This same freedom is available to states in relation to investment treaties. However, the analysis may vary in the context of investor–State arbitration . An arbitration clause in an investment treaty represents an offer made by those states to arbitrate disputes with investors. When investors accept that offer, the consent to arbitrate becomes perfected and cannot be withdrawn unless both parties to the arbitration —the investor and the host state—agree. This conclusion is based on the principle of irrevocability of the consent to arbitrate, which is a pillar of arbitration law and also is established in Article 25 of the ICSID Convention. Moreover, the applicable law to the dispute would be the law that was binding on the parties at the moment of the acts that created the dispute. The same principle applies in state responsibility disputes. Therefore, the argument that Australia simply can amend its BIT with Hong Kong to stop the Philip Morris arbitration might be incorrect. This article explores these issues. (ICSID) Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of other States (1965), art 25, 71–72 Philip Morris Asia Limited v The Commonwealth of Australia , PCA Case No. 2012–12Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), arts 24, 11, 28, 31, 39, 42, 54, 59, 70Australia -Hong Kong Bilateral Investment Treaty (1993) Sanum Investments Limited v Lao People's Democratic Republic , PCA Case No 2013–13 Aguas del Tunari, SA v Republic of Bolivia , ICSID Case No. ARB/02/3, Decision on Respondent's Objections to Jurisdiction, IIC 8 (2005)NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) Free Trade Commission, Notes of Interpretation of Certain Chapter 11 Provisions (2001) Azurix Corp v Argentina , ICSID Case No. ARB/01/12, Decision on Jurisdiction, IIC (2003) Island of Palmas Case (or Miangas) , United States v Netherlands, Award (1949) Pan American Energy LLC v Plurinational State of Bolivia , ICSID Case No ARB/10/8
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- 2015
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26. Parallel Functional Changes in Independent Testis-Specific Duplicates of Aldehyde dehydrogenase in Drosophila
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James D. Fry and Mahul Chakraborty
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Male ,Genetics ,Enzyme Gene ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,Aldehyde Dehydrogenase ,Biology ,Intralocus sexual conflict ,Evolution, Molecular ,Protein sequencing ,Genes, Duplicate ,Testis ,biology.protein ,Animals ,Drosophila ,Female ,Binding site ,Molecular Biology ,Gene ,Discoveries ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Functional divergence ,Function (biology) - Abstract
A large proportion of duplicates, originating from ubiquitously expressed genes, acquire testis-biased expression. Identifying the underlying cause of this observation requires determining whether the duplicates have altered functions relative to the parental genes. Typically, statistical methods are used to test for positive selection, signature of which in protein sequence of duplicates implies functional divergence. When assumptions are violat ed, however, such tests can lead to false inference of positive selection. More convincing evidence for naturally selected functional changes would be the occurrence of structural changes with similar functional consequences in independent duplicates of the same gene. We investigated two testis-specific duplicates of the broadly expressed enzyme gene Aldehyde dehydrogenase (Aldh )t hat arose in different Drosophila lineages. The duplicates show a typical pattern of accelerated amino acid substitutions relative to their broadly expressed paralogs, with statistical evidence for positive selection in both cases. Importantly, in both duplicates, width of the entrance to the substrate binding site, known a priori to influence substrate specificity, and otherwise conserved throughout the genus Drosophila, has been reduced, resulting in narrowing of the entrance. Protein structure modeling suggests that the reduction of the size of the enzyme’s substrate entry channel, which is likely to shift substrate specificity toward smaller aldehydes, is accounted for by the positively selected parallel substitutions in one duplicate but not the other. Evolution of the testis-specific duplicates was accompanied by reduction in expression of the ancestral Aldh in males, supporting the hypothesis that the duplicates may have helped resolve intralocus sexual conflict over Aldh function.
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- 2015
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27. Formation of Customary International Law Through Consensus in International Organizations
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James D. Fry
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Law ,Political science ,General Earth and Planetary Sciences ,Customary international law ,International law ,General Environmental Science ,Public international law - Published
- 2015
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28. Mechanisms of naturally evolved ethanol resistance inDrosophila melanogaster
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James D. Fry
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Physiology ,Climate ,Mutant ,Aquatic Science ,Chromosomes ,chemistry.chemical_compound ,Acetic acid ,Animals ,Molecular Biology ,Research Articles ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Acetic Acid ,Alcohol dehydrogenase ,Genetics ,Polymorphism, Genetic ,Ethanol ,biology ,Resistance (ecology) ,Alcohol Dehydrogenase ,Chromosome ,biology.organism_classification ,Metabolic pathway ,Drosophila melanogaster ,chemistry ,Insect Science ,biology.protein ,Animal Science and Zoology - Abstract
The decaying fruit in which Drosophila melanogaster feed and breed can contain ethanol in concentrations as high as 6–7%. In this cosmopolitan species, populations from temperate regions are consistently more resistant to ethanol poisoning than populations from the tropics, but little is known about the physiological basis of this difference. I show that when exposed to low levels of ethanol vapor, flies from a tropical African population accumulated 2–3 times more internal ethanol than flies from a European population, giving evidence that faster ethanol catabolism by European flies contributes to the resistance difference. Using lines differing only in the origin of their third chromosome, however, I show that faster ethanol elimination cannot fully explain the resistance difference, because relative to African third chromosomes, European third chromosomes confer substantially higher ethanol resistance, while having little effect on internal ethanol concentrations. European third chromosomes also confer higher resistance to acetic acid, a metabolic product of ethanol, than African third chromosomes, suggesting that the higher ethanol resistance conferred by the former might be due to increased resistance to deleterious effects of ethanol-derived acetic acid. In support of this hypothesis, when ethanol catabolism was blocked with an Alcohol dehydrogenase mutant, there was no difference in ethanol resistance between flies with European and African third chromosomes.
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- 2014
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29. Pluralism, Religion, and the Moral Fairness of International Law
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James D. Fry
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Law ,Political science ,Religious studies ,Pluralism (philosophy) ,International law - Published
- 2014
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30. Towards an International Piracy Tribunal: Curing the Legal Limbo of Captured Pirates
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James D. Fry
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Statute ,Tribunal ,Jurisdiction ,Crime of aggression ,United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ,Law ,Political science ,War crime ,Genocide ,Crimes against humanity - Abstract
The number of pirates from Somalia acting in and around the Arabian Sea and Arab Gulf seems to have grown exponentially in recent years, catching numerous headlines and the world’s attention in the process. Although naval powers have devoted substantial energy and resources to conducting various enforcement missions, little has been done to prosecute their captured pirates. At present, the capturing powers usually either release the pirates shortly after they are captured or ‘dump’ them for trial at a developing African country. This practice hardly can be said to provide an effective deterrence to piracy. To aid in deterring these pirates through proper prosecution, the establishment of an international judicial organisation in the region – perhaps in Qatar – that focuses specifically on these types of crimes and criminals might be helpful in terms of convenience and legitimacy. This article is the first to explore this possibility from a legal perspective. Critics will be quick to question whether use of an already existing forum might be more viable. Expanding the International Criminal Court’s jurisdiction to cover piracy is one option, although at least two factors frustrate this option. First, adding piracy to genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression might dilute the International Criminal Court’s focus on the ‘most serious crimes’. Second, without the cooperation of the United States and the People’s Republic of China, which are not members of the Rome Statute, it will be difficult for captured pirates by these naval powerhouses to be tried by the International Criminal Court (ICC). Another option is to establish a specialised piracy chamber within the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). At least three factors frustrate this option. First, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) requires the consent of private
- Published
- 2014
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31. The Roots of Historic Title: Non-Western Pre-Colonial Normative Systems and Legal Resolution of Territorial Disputes
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James D. Fry and Melissa H. Loja
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Tribunal ,International court ,Sovereignty ,Law ,Political Science and International Relations ,World War II ,International legal system ,International arbitration ,Sociology ,Allegiance ,China - Abstract
The validity of historic or ancient title to territory has been tested in numerous international judicial proceedings, both in the International Court of Justice and in international arbitration. Historic title usually originates in ancient normative systems, including tributary, feudal, sultanate, and Islamic systems that predate the Western international legal system. Nevertheless, the rules against which historic title has been tested in international judicial proceedings generally require that the original titleholder be a state or a central authority that exercised territorial sovereignty over a defined space to the exclusion of other sovereign powers. The rules that apply specifically to these ancient normative systems, where allegiance to authority was personal or religious rather than territorial, have been seen as irrelevant compared to the more contemporary determinations of historic title. The only exceptions have been the French medieval customary normfrankalmoign, which the international arbitral tribunal in theMinquiers and Ecrehoscase cited as evidence that the English king exercised territorial sovereignty over the disputed islands, and the personal allegiance of theOrang Lautto the Sultan of Johore, coupled with the recognition accorded to the latter by the great maritime powers, which the International Court of Justice inMalaysiav.Singaporefound sufficient to prove the historic title of Malaysia over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and Middle Rocks. The principles by which historic title were adjudicated in these cases appear to be the same principles by which the Western powers dealt with the claims of the People's Republic of China and Vietnam to the Paracel Islands and the Spratly Islands, not only during the colonial period but also after the Second World War. This analysis suggests how the International Court of Justice or an international arbitral tribunal might, if given the opportunity, resolve these South China Sea disputes. Readers might also find this analysis to be particularly relevant to other disputes involving historic title, including the East China Sea disputes, although the focus of this article is on the South China Sea disputes. States and other commentators are left to rely on their own preferences and allegiances in reaching their own normative conclusions using the novel analysis provided by this article.
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- 2014
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32. Forged Independence and Impartiality: Conflicts of Interest of International Arbitrators in Investment Disputes
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Juan Ignacio Stampalija and James D. Fry
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media_common.quotation_subject ,Conflict of interest ,Impartiality ,Independence ,Variety (cybernetics) ,Order (exchange) ,Law ,Arbitration ,International arbitration ,Sociology ,Business and International Management ,Legitimacy ,media_common - Abstract
This article represents the first comprehensive analysis of the challenges to the independence and impartiality of international arbitrators in investment disputes. This article evaluates the rules that govern such challenges and asserts that the standards for challenging ICSID arbitrators are not adequate to enable real challenges to arbitrators. Indeed, only one challenge under the ICSID rules has been successful. This in itself is not necessarily problematic assuming the parties agree to dispute settlement with this in mind. This article proposes adjustment of these standards in a variety of ways to help ensure the fairness and perceived fairness of the arbitral process. Finally, this article calls for states and the arbitration community to take steps to combat conflicts of interest of international arbitrators in order to maintain the legitimacy of the regime and to continue to promote growth of the global economy. As the IBA Conflicts of Interest Subcommittee will return to the issue of conflict of interest in international arbitration shortly, this article hopes to influence its efforts, as well as the decisions of states when consenting to arbitration and when considering how to improve the system.
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- 2014
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33. Book Reviews - Non-proliferation Law as a Special Regime: A Contribution to Fragmentation Theory in International Law. Edited by Daniel Joyner and Marco Roscini. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Pp. x, 291. Index. $109, £65
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James D. Fry
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Law ,Political Science and International Relations ,Sociology ,International law ,Market fragmentation - Published
- 2014
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34. The Semisecret Life of Late Mao-Era International Law Scholarship
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James D. Fry and Huang Yining
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- 2019
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35. Reassessing Venezuela's organic hydrocarbon law: a balance between sovereignty and efficiency?
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ElFadil Ibrahim and James D. Fry
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Balance (accounting) ,Sovereignty ,Law ,Economics ,Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law ,Energy (miscellaneous) - Published
- 2013
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36. China's Version of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention: Comparing Ravens and Writing Desks?
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James D. Fry
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Engineering ,Project commissioning ,business.industry ,Corruption ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Convention ,Publishing ,Order (exchange) ,Law ,Foreign Corrupt Practices Act ,Criminal law ,business ,China ,media_common - Abstract
The People's Republic of China's National People's Congress amended the 1997 Criminal Law in February 2011 in order to cover bribery of foreign government officials or officials of international public organisations, with the Amendment coming into effect on 1 May 2011. Known as the Eighth Amendment to the Criminal Law, this Amendment, inter alia, brought the PRC into line with Article 16(1) of the UN Convention against Corruption.
- Published
- 2013
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37. Cleaved International Law: Exploring the Dynamic Relationship between International Climate Change Law and International Health Law
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James D. Fry and Inna Amesheva
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International trade law ,International human rights law ,business.industry ,Political science ,Law ,United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ,International health ,Commission ,International law ,Epistemic community ,Collective security ,business - Abstract
The field of international law often is taught and thought of as a group of disconnected substantive subfields, each with its own epistemic community. These specialized subfields range from international human rights law to the law of the sea, from international trade law to collective security law. Examples where subfields conflict with each other and separate examples where subfields complement each other have led two camps of commentators over the past decade to comprehensively define international law’s nature as either united or fragmented in a binary fashion. Even the United Nations’ International Law Commission established a study group to explore this topic, which concluded in 2006 after over four years of study that international law is fragmented due, in part, to the collision of various branches of international law.
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- 2016
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38. Evolution of gene expression and expression plasticity in long-term experimental populations ofDrosophila melanogastermaintained under constant and variable ethanol stress
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Lev Y. Yampolsky, James D. Fry, and Galina V. Glazko
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Regulation of gene expression ,Genetics ,education.field_of_study ,biology ,Population ,biology.organism_classification ,Gene expression ,Drosophila melanogaster ,Adaptation ,DNA microarray ,Gene–environment interaction ,education ,Gene ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics - Abstract
Gene expression responds to the environment and can also evolve rapidly in response to altered selection regimes. Little is known, however, about the extent to which evolutionary adaptation to a particular type of stress involves changes in the within-generation ('plastic') responses of gene expression to the stress. We used microarrays to quantify gene expression plasticity in response to ethanol in laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster differing in their history of ethanol exposure. Two populations ('R' populations) were maintained on regular medium, two ('E') were maintained on medium supplemented with ethanol, and two ('M') were maintained in a mixed regime in which half of the population was reared on one medium type, and half on the other, each generation. After more than 300 generations, embryos from each population were collected and exposed to either ethanol or water as a control, and RNA was extracted from the larvae shortly after hatching. Nearly 2000 transcripts showed significant within-generation responses to ethanol exposure. Evolutionary history also affected gene expression: the E and M populations were largely indistinguishable in expression, but differed significantly in expression from the R populations for over 100 transcripts, the majority of which did not show plastic responses. Notably, in no case was the interaction between selection regime and ethanol exposure significant after controlling for multiple comparisons, indicating that adaptation to ethanol in the E and M populations did not involve substantial changes in gene expression plasticity. The results give evidence that expression plasticity evolves considerably more slowly than mean expression.
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- 2012
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39. Towards an Agreement on Investment in Mercosur: Conflict and Complementarity of International Investment Law and International Trade-in-Services Law
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James D. Fry and Juan Ignacio Stampalija
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business.industry ,Trade in services ,Single market ,International trade ,International law ,Complementarity (physics) ,International investment agreement ,Law ,Political Science and International Relations ,Realm ,Economics ,Business and International Management ,Investment protection ,Open-ended investment company ,business ,General Economics, Econometrics and Finance - Abstract
This article is the first to analyze the 2010 guidelines established by Mercosur’s Common Market Council for drafting an Agreement on Investment for Mercosur, which up until now has lacked any regulations for the promotion and protection of investment. This agreement is important not only because it potentially would fill a large gap in Mercosur law and strengthen Mercosur’s emergent common market, but also because it ostensibly represents the first time that Brazil has shown a real willingness to create an international system for investment protection, which represents a monumental breakthrough for Brazil. However, the guidelines (provided at the end of this article in an appendix) appear to have been created using the Protocol of Montevideo on Trade in Services as the model, as opposed to the more directly relevant norms from the realm of international investment law. This article explores whether this approach will lead to an international investment agreement that adequately promotes and protects investment in Mercosur. This article asserts that a better approach would be to use models from the realm of international investment law because these types of protections are needed in order to reassure investors. The sub-working group charged with drafting this agreement still is working on the draft agreement. Therefore, this article aims to influence that drafting process and subsequent debates over this draft agreement prior to its conclusion.
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- 2012
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40. Drosophila lacking a homologue of mammalian ALDH2 have multiple fitness defects
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James D. Fry and Mahul Chakraborty
- Subjects
Male ,Protein Carbonylation ,Longevity ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,Hyperoxia ,Toxicology ,Article ,Mitochondrial Proteins ,Animals ,Gene ,Sequence Deletion ,ALDH2 ,chemistry.chemical_classification ,Sequence Homology, Amino Acid ,biology ,Reproduction ,Wild type ,General Medicine ,Aldehyde Dehydrogenase ,biology.organism_classification ,Amino acid ,Drosophila melanogaster ,Enzyme ,Biochemistry ,chemistry ,Starvation ,biology.protein ,Female ,Lipid Peroxidation - Abstract
Little is known about the roles of aldehyde dehydrogenases in non-vertebrate animals. We recently showed that in Drosophila melanogaster, an enzyme with ~70% amino acid identity to mammalian ALDH2 is necessary for detoxification of dietary ethanol. To investigate other functions of this enzyme, DmALDH, encoded by the gene Aldh, we compared two strains homozygous for Aldh-null mutations to two closely related wild type strains in measures of fitness and stress resistance in the absence of ethanol. Aldh-null strains have lower total reproductive rate, pre-adult viability, resistance to starvation, and possibly longevity than wild-type strains. When maintained under hyperoxia, Aldh nulls die more quickly and accumulate higher levels of protein carbonyls than wild-types, thereby providing evidence that DmALDH is important for detoxifying reactive aldehydes generated by lipid peroxidation. However no effect of Aldh was seen on protein carbonyl levels in flies maintained under normoxia. It is possible that Aldh nulls experience elevated rates of protein carbonylation under normoxia, but this is compensated (at a fitness cost) by increased rates of degradation of the defective proteins. Alternatively, the fitness defects of Aldh nulls under normoxia may result from the absence of one or more other functions of DmALDH, unrelated to protection against protein carbonylation.
- Published
- 2011
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
41. Sovereign Equality under the Chemical Weapons Convention: Doughnuts over Holes
- Author
-
James D. Fry
- Subjects
Disarmament ,Balance (metaphysics) ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Chemical Weapons Convention ,Sovereignty ,State (polity) ,Order (exchange) ,Law ,Political science ,Treaty ,Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality ,Safety Research ,media_common - Abstract
By the very nature of treaties, States give up some of their sovereignty in order to achieve a common, desired objective between the parties to the treaty. When it comes to the Chemical Weapons Convention, however, commentators overly emphasize its impact on State sovereignty and equality without acknowledging the ways that it actually preserves State sovereignty and equality, arguably better than other multilateral treaties. This article seeks to bring balance to the debate by focussing on these relatively innovative and much overlooked provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention, with the hope of encouraging the last seven non-member States to join and the rest to have even greater confidence in this most important of disarmament regimes.
- Published
- 2010
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
42. Desordre Public International under the New York Convention: Wither Truly International Public Policy
- Author
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James D. Fry
- Subjects
Convention ,Policy studies ,Globalization ,Law ,Political Science and International Relations ,medicine ,Subject (philosophy) ,Public policy ,Sociology ,medicine.symptom ,Enforcement ,Confusion - Abstract
Much confusion has revolved around the nature of the public policy defense under Article V(2)(b) of United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Awards (the New York Convention) to the point that the French term for public policy, ordre public, ought to be changed to desordre public to reflect the general disorder in the discourse on this particular subject. This article takes an in-depth look at the public policy defense and challenges the notion that enforcement States are obliged to consider supranational public policy when deciding whether to recognize or enforce an international arbitral award, except in only a few cases where certain regional obligations are involved. Even then, this is not the type of truly international public policy that is advocated by numerous commentators. Nonetheless, States are free to rely on truly international public policy when deciding on enforcement. Despite the perceived benefits to relying on truly international public policy, there are significant reasons to refrain from pushing for such reliance. While reliance on truly international public policy may help mitigate some of the adverse side effects associated with globalization, it is important to ask what is the price we are willing to pay to counter these side effects. The price should not be the emasculation of the New York Convention itself.
- Published
- 2009
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
43. A WORLDWIDE POLYMORPHISM IN ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER: EVIDENCE FOR SELECTION MEDIATED BY DIETARY ETHANOL
- Author
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Kathy Donlon, Molly Saweikis, and James D. Fry
- Subjects
Genetics ,biology ,Acetaldehyde ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,biology.organism_classification ,chemistry.chemical_compound ,chemistry ,Molecular evolution ,Polymorphism (computer science) ,biology.protein ,Allele ,Drosophila melanogaster ,General Agricultural and Biological Sciences ,Gene ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics ,Alcohol dehydrogenase - Abstract
Clinally varying traits in Drosophila melanogaster provide good opportunities for elucidating the genetic basis of adaptation. Resistance to ethanol, a natural component of D. melanogaster's breeding sites, increases with latitude on multiple continents, indicating that the trait is under selection. Although the well-studied Alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) polymorphism makes a contribution to the clines, it accounts for only a small proportion of the phenotypic variation. We describe an amino acid replacement polymorphism in Aldehyde dehydrogenase (Aldh), the gene encoding the second enzyme in the ethanol degradation pathway, that shows hallmarks of also contributing to the clines. The derived Aldh allele, like the Adh-Fast allele, increases in frequency in laboratory populations selected for ethanol resistance, and increases in frequency with latitude in wild populations. Moreover, strains with the derived allele have significantly higher ALDH enzyme activity with acetaldehyde (the breakdown product of ethanol) as a substrate than strains with the ancestral allele. As is the case with the Adh-Fast allele, chromosomes with the derived Aldh allele show markedly reduced molecular variation in the vicinity of the replacement polymorphism compared to those with the ancestral allele, suggesting a single, relatively recent origin. Nonetheless, the Aldh polymorphism differs from the Adh polymorphism in that the ethanol-associated allele remains in relatively low frequency in most populations. We present evidence that this is likely to be the result of a trade-off in catalytic activity, with the advantage of the derived allele in acetaldehyde detoxification being offset by a disadvantage in detoxification of other aldehydes.
- Published
- 2007
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
44. Preference for ethanol in feeding and oviposition in temperate and tropical populations of Drosophila melanogaster
- Author
-
Jing Zhu and James D. Fry
- Subjects
Larva ,Resistance (ecology) ,biology ,fungi ,Zoology ,biology.organism_classification ,Preference ,Article ,Habitat ,Insect Science ,Drosophilidae ,Botany ,Temperate climate ,Cosmopolitan distribution ,Fermentation ,Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics - Abstract
The natural habitat of Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae) is fermenting fruits, which can be rich in ethanol. For unknown reasons, temperate populations of this cosmopolitan species have higher ethanol resistance than tropical populations. To determine whether this difference is accompanied by a parallel difference in preference for ethanol, we compared two European and two tropical African populations in feeding and oviposition preference for ethanol-supplemented medium. Although females of all populations laid significantly more eggs on medium with ethanol than on control medium, preference of European females for ethanol increased as ethanol concentration increased from 2 to 6%, whereas that of African females decreased. In feeding tests, African females preferred control medium over medium with 4% ethanol, whereas European females showed no preference. Males of all populations strongly preferred control medium. The combination of preference for ethanol in oviposition, and avoidance or neutrality in feeding, gives evidence that adults choose breeding sites with ethanol for the benefit of larvae, rather than for their own benefit. The stronger oviposition preference for ethanol of temperate than tropical females suggests that this benefit may be more important in temperate populations. Two possible benefits of ethanol for which there is some experimental evidence are cryoprotection and protection against natural enemies.
- Published
- 2015
45. Oil Pollution and the Dynamic Relationship between International Environmental Law and the Law of the Sea
- Author
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James D. Fry and Inna Amesheva
- Subjects
Environmental law ,Order (exchange) ,Environmental protection ,United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ,Law of the sea ,Isolation (psychology) ,Global commons ,Environmental science ,Context (language use) ,International law ,Law and economics - Abstract
This Article examines the relationship between international environmental law and the law of the sea in the context of trying to address the problem of oil pollution in a coherent manner. Both of these branches of international law share a common goal, yet their relationship is inherently complex. Starting with a brief synopsis of international environmental law and the law of the sea, this Article then explores the ways these two branches interact in a dynamic manner. The Article demonstrates that they do not operate in isolation, but rather help shape one another. The authors then identify the situations where international environmental law and the law of the sea conflict, primarily in the provisions contained in international and regional conventions, which leads to a multifaceted legal framework that is difficult to follow in a coherent manner. In these cases, pursuing the rules of one regime could mean breaching provisions and goals of the other. The Article concludes with a case study on oil-spill pollution, which demonstrates how the two branches of international environmental law and the law of the sea simultaneously conflict and complement each other. The main take-away point of this Article is the fact that the unity-versus fragmentation debate regarding the law of the sea and international environmental law should serve as a reminder that coordination of these two legal regimes is needed in order to effectively adopt measures that protect the global commons.
- Published
- 2015
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
46. Aldehyde dehydrogenase is essential for both adult and larval ethanol resistance in Drosophila melanogaster
- Author
-
James D. Fry and Molly Saweikis
- Subjects
Male ,Drug Resistance ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,Animals, Genetically Modified ,chemistry.chemical_compound ,Detoxification ,Genetics ,Animals ,Ethanol metabolism ,Alcohol dehydrogenase ,chemistry.chemical_classification ,Ethanol ,biology ,Alcohol Dehydrogenase ,Acetaldehyde ,General Medicine ,Aldehyde Dehydrogenase ,biology.organism_classification ,Enzyme ,chemistry ,Biochemistry ,Larva ,biology.protein ,Drosophila ,Female ,Drosophila melanogaster - Abstract
The enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) is essential for ethanol metabolism in mammals, converting the highly toxic intermediate acetaldehyde to acetate. The role of ALDH in Drosophila has been debated, with some authors arguing that, at least in larvae, acetaldehyde detoxification is carried out mainly by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme responsible for converting ethanol to acetaldehyde. Here, we report the creation and characterization of four null mutants of Aldh, the putative structural locus for ALDH. Aldh null larvae and adults are poisoned by ethanol concentrations easily tolerated by wild-types; their ethanol sensitivity is in fact comparable to that of Adh nulls. The results refute the view that ALDH plays only a minor role in ethanol detoxification in larvae, and suggest that Aldh and Adh may be equally important players in the evolution of ethanol resistance in fruit-breeding Drosophila.
- Published
- 2006
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
47. Widespread Correlations Between Dominance and Homozygous Effects of Mutations: Implications for Theories of Dominance
- Author
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James D. Fry and Nitin Phadnis
- Subjects
Genetics ,Models, Genetic ,Homozygote ,Saccharomyces cerevisiae ,Investigations ,Biology ,biology.organism_classification ,Metabolic pathway ,Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal ,Mutation ,Genetic variation ,Inbreeding depression ,Selection, Genetic ,Negative correlation ,Ploidy ,Gene ,Gene Deletion ,Genes, Dominant ,Dominance (genetics) - Abstract
The dominance of deleterious mutations has important consequences for phenomena such as inbreeding depression, the evolution of diploidy, and levels of natural genetic variation. Kacser and Burns' metabolic theory provides a paradigmatic explanation for why most large-effect mutations are recessive. According to the metabolic theory, the recessivity of large-effect mutations is a consequence of a diminishing-returns relationship between flux through a metabolic pathway and enzymatic activity at any step in the pathway, which in turn is an inevitable consequence of long metabolic pathways. A major line of support for this theory was the demonstration of a negative correlation between homozygous effects and dominance of mutations in Drosophila, consistent with a central prediction of the metabolic theory. Using data on gene deletions in yeast, we show that a negative correlation between homozygous effects and dominance of mutations exists for all major categories of genes analyzed, not just those encoding enzymes. The relationship between dominance and homozygous effects is similar for duplicated and single-copy genes and for genes whose products are members of protein complexes and those that are not. A complete explanation of dominance therefore requires either a generalization of Kacser and Burns' theory to nonenzyme genes or a new theory.
- Published
- 2005
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
48. Dietary Ethanol Mediates Selection on Aldehyde Dehydrogenase Activity in Drosophila melanogaster
- Author
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James D. Fry, Carolyn M. Bahnck, Maryann Mikucki, Nitin Phadnis, and Wendy C. Slattery
- Subjects
Ethanol ,biology ,Structural gene ,Acetaldehyde ,Aldehyde dehydrogenase ,Plant Science ,biology.organism_classification ,chemistry.chemical_compound ,chemistry ,Biochemistry ,biology.protein ,Melanogaster ,Animal Science and Zoology ,Drosophila melanogaster ,Ethanol metabolism ,Alcohol dehydrogenase - Abstract
Ethanol is an important environmental variable for fruit-breeding Drosophila species, serving as a resource at low levels and a toxin at high levels. The first step of ethanol metabolism, the conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde, is catalyzed primarily by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). The second step, the oxidation of acetaldehyde to acetate, has been a source of controversy, with some authors arguing that it is carried out primarily by ADH itself, rather than a separate aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) as in mammals. We review recent evidence that ALDH plays an important role in ethanol metabolism in Drosophila. In support of this view, we report that D. melanogaster populations maintained on ethanol-supplemented media evolved higher activity of ALDH, as well as of ADH. We have also tentatively identified the structural gene responsible for the majority of ALDH activity in D. melanogaster. We hypothesize that variation in ALDH activity may make an important contribution to the observed wide variation in ethanol tolerance within and among Drosophila species.
- Published
- 2004
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
49. On the Rate and Linearity of Viability Declines in Drosophila Mutation-Accumulation Experiments: Genomic Mutation Rates and Synergistic Epistasis Revisited
- Author
-
James D. Fry
- Subjects
Genetics ,Male ,Mutation rate ,Zygote ,Genome ,biology ,Epistasis, Genetic ,Mutation Accumulation ,Investigations ,biology.organism_classification ,Genetic load ,Drosophila melanogaster ,Genetics, Population ,Genotype ,Mutation ,Epistasis ,Animals ,Female ,Genetic Load ,Dominance (genetics) - Abstract
High rates of deleterious mutations could severely reduce the fitness of populations, even endangering their persistence; these effects would be mitigated if mutations synergize each others’ effects. An experiment by Mukai in the 1960s gave evidence that in Drosophila melanogaster, viability-depressing mutations occur at the surprisingly high rate of around one per zygote and that the mutations interact synergistically. A later experiment by Ohnishi seemed to support the high mutation rate, but gave no evidence for synergistic epistasis. Both of these studies, however, were flawed by the lack of suitable controls for assessing viability declines of the mutation-accumulation (MA) lines. By comparing homozygous viability of the MA lines to simultaneously estimated heterozygous viability and using estimates of the dominance of mutations in the experiments, I estimate the viability declines relative to an appropriate control. This approach yields two unexpected conclusions. First, in Ohnishi’s experiment as well as in Mukai’s, MA lines showed faster-than-linear declines in viability, indicative of synergistic epistasis. Second, while Mukai’s estimate of the genomic mutation rate is supported, that from Ohnishi’s experiment is an order of magnitude lower. The different results of the experiments most likely resulted from differences in the starting genotypes; even within Mukai’s experiment, a subset of MA lines, which I argue probably resulted from a contamination event, showed much slower viability declines than did the majority of lines. Because different genotypes may show very different mutational behavior, only studies using many founding genotypes can determine the average rate and distribution of effects of mutations relevant to natural populations.
- Published
- 2004
- Full Text
- View/download PDF
50. Legal Resolution of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Disputes
- Author
-
James D. Fry and James D. Fry
- Subjects
- Nuclear nonproliferation, Dispute resolution (Law), Diplomatic negotiations in international disputes
- Abstract
How viable is the resolution of nuclear non-proliferation disputes through the International Court of Justice and international arbitration? James Fry examines the compromissory clauses in the IAEA Statute, IAEA Safeguards Agreements and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material that give jurisdiction to these fora and analyses recent jurisprudence to demonstrate how legal resolution can handle such politically sensitive disputes. In sum, legal resolution of nuclear non-proliferation disputes represents an option that States and commentators have all too often ignored. The impartiality and procedural safeguards of legal resolution should make it an acceptable option for target States and the international community, especially vis-à-vis the procedural shortcomings and general heavy-handedness of Security Council involvement under UN Charter Chapter VII.
- Published
- 2013
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