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Background In recent months, multiple efforts have sought to characterize COVID-19 social distancing policy responses. These efforts have used various coding frameworks, but many have relied on coding methodologies that may not adequately describe the gradient in social distancing policies as states “re-open.” Methods We developed a COVID-19 social distancing intensity framework that is sufficiently specific and sensitive to capture this gradient. Based on a review of policies from a 12 U.S. state sample, we developed a social distancing intensity framework consisting of 16 domains and intensity scales of 0–5 for each domain. Results We found that the states with the highest average daily intensity from our sample were Pennsylvania, Washington, Colorado, California, and New Jersey, with Georgia, Florida, Massachusetts, and Texas having the lowest. While some domains (such as restaurants and movie theaters) showed bimodal policy intensity distributions compatible with binary (yes/no) coding, others (such as childcare and religious gatherings) showed broader variability that would be missed without more granular coding. Conclusion This detailed intensity framework reveals the granularity and nuance between social distancing policy responses. Developing standardized approaches for constructing policy taxonomies and coding processes may facilitate more rigorous policy analysis and improve disease modeling efforts.

Oil was discovered in the United States in Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1863. In the 1880’s, oil and gas development began on the West Coast and the first offshore well was drilled in the Summer land field, near Santa Barbara, in 1896 into the Monterey Formation. This activity has greatly intensified, particularly offshore in the last 20 years. The States of California, Oregon and Washington have jurisdiction from the shoreline to a distance of 3 nautical miles offshore. The Federal Government has jurisdiction from 3 to 200 nautical miles offshore in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The U.S. Department of Interior, through the Bureau of Land Management and the Minerals Management Service, has been in the middle of an increasingly strident public debate, while trying to carry out an environmental studies program and management offshore leases in a timely manner. Those involved in the government, as advisor’s to the government and as contractors on the studies, have tried to develop an environmental assessment program which complements other research efforts along the U.S. Pacific Coast. Some good science has resulted, as well as better understanding between the participants: government, industry and academic science.

Sea surface maps of temperature, salinity, nitrate, silicate, phosphate, and fluorescence were produced almost daily during a 6-week cruise (PISCO) in the Peru upwelling system in the austral fall, 1969. The maps were produced by a shipboard computer from data gathered with the ship underway. The maps show persistent “plumes” of freshly upwelled water associated with coastal irregularities and prominent bathymetric features. The information on the location, orientation, and extent of these plumes was used to locate stations where primary productivity experiments were carried out. The definition of persistent plumes has led to the development of successful two-dimensional simulation models of the ecosystem. One of the primary difficulties in studies of time-varying mesoscale phenomena in the ocean, such as coastal upwelling, is that large surface gradients and the rapid response of the upper ocean to changes in wind stress make it impossible to synthesize a synoptic picture from discrete stations taken over many days or weeks. More truly synoptic sampling is required. Remote sensing has shown considerable promise for such mapping of temperature and chlorophyll, but the use of a shipboard system has the advantage that many more variables can be determined (Kellcy 1975). We developed such a shipboard system for the study of marine ecosystems and used it during a cruise of the RV Thomas G. Thompson to the upwelling area off the coast of Peru near 15’S in 1969. During ’ Contribution No. 841 from the Department of Oceanography, University of Washington. This research was supported by the International Biological Program (NSF GB-35880X-Upwelling Biome) and the Office of Naval Research (N-0001467-A-0103-0014). The preparation of this paper was supported in part by National Science Foundation GX 33502 [Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis ( NSF-IDOE ) I. ’ Current address: School of Natural Sciences, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California 94132. ” Current address: Division of Oceanographic Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratories, Upton, New York 11973. 4 Curent address: Bigelow Laboratory of Marine Science, West Boothbay Harbor, Mainc 04575. this cruise (PISCO), 20 March-3 May 1969, data were acquired and digitized by a shipboard data system and analyzed by shipboard computer to produce sea surface maps of the concentrations of variables important to the understanding of the ecosystem. Maps of the sea surface, temperaturc, salinity, nitrate, nitrite, silicate, phosphate, and fluorescence were produced on a grid 70 nautical miles ( 130 km) long in the longshore dimension and 15 nautical miles (28 km) wide in the offshore dimension ( Fig. 1). Since much of the station work on the cruise was confined to the daylight hours because sunlight was necessary for the experiments conducted, the night was used for underway mapping of the relevant sea surface properties. Typically about a third of the total grid was covered on a given night. Maps were concentrated in the central portion of the grid, and occasionally the entire grid was covered by continuous steaming for 36 h. With the aid of the shipboard computer, maps from a night’s run could bc plotted in the early morning and used to plan the location of the day’s stations. Thus, the sampling program could bc adapted to conditions measured only a few hours before. We wish to thank L. and R. Olund for their assistance during the cruise and J. Glass and M. Friebertshauser for their assistance in analysis of data. LIMNOLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY 784 SEPTEMBER 1975, V. 20( 5) Surface maps of Peru upwelling 785 UNDERWAY SAMPLING DATA FLOW

The water depth in marshes occurring along Lake Michigan is largely controlled by fluctuations of the Lake Michigan water level. The role of water level in controlling the distribution and cycling of N and P in emergent (Sparganium eurycarpum,Scirpus validus, andTypha latifolia) and wet meadow (Calamagrostis canadensis,Carex stricta, andCarex aquatilis) communities of a Lake Michigan river mouth marsh was studied. Nutrient uptake was determined from biomass sampling and tissue analysis. Community distribution at various lake stages was determined from aerial photographs.

An experiment to measure short-term variations in the vertical distributions of biologically significant variables in a coastal upwelling ecosystem was carried out in July, 1973, off the coast of Oregon. It involved a 25-h time series of hydrographic stations on the continental shelf adjacent to a high resolution current meter array. Profiles of the variables in the z−t domain show the effects on the vertical distributions of internal waves and tides and provide information on the errors implicit in low resolution sampling.

organic matter in the channel, create and maintain wetlands, modify nutrient cycling and decomposition dynamics, modify the structure and dynamics of the riparian zone, influence the character of water and materials transported downstream, and ultimately influence plant and animal community composition and diversity (Naiman and Melillo 1984, Naiman et al. 1986). In addition to their importance at the ecosystem level, these effects have a significant impact on the landscape and must be interpreted over broad spatial and temporal scales as beaver population dynamics shift in response to disturbance, food supply, disease, and predation. Although once more prevalent than they are today, beaver-induced alterations to drainage networks are not localized or unusual. Where beaver

Measurements were made of wind, surface circulation, hydrography, nutrients, and phytoplankton and zooplankton rate processes in a time series at 27/sup 0/N during April 1973. A string of current meters and a towed acoustic body were also used to assess the distribution of subsurface currents and red crabs. The seasonal onset of upwelling had already occurred. Diatoms were initially the dominant primary producers. Two perturbations of the upwelling state were observed in response to relaxation of the winds. A comparison of this study with a preceding one in March 1972 indicates that the rate of upwelling, the nutrient content, and the phytoplankton specific growth rate were about the same in both years. The total productivity and biomass of the phytoplankton were less in 1973, implying that greater grazing stress was associated with a switch from smaller dinoflagellates to larger diatoms. Local temporal variability of upwelling off Baja California is postulated to have led to the replacement of clupeids by the red crab, Pleuroncodes planipes, as a facultative herbivore.

Benthic infauna was collected at 37 stations in Puget Sound, in Juan de Fuca Strait, and off the northwestern coast of Washington during the summer of 1967, and at 18 additional stations off the southwestern coast of Washington during the summer of 1968. The crustaceans, lamellibranchs, and echinoderms were identified and counted, and the data were subjected to an analysis of affinity among stations, to Fager's recurrent group analysis, and to factor analysis for identification of the benthic communities and the groupings of benthic species in the investigated area.Trellis-diagrams of indices of affinity among the stations, based on the presence or absence of species, indicated four rather distinct groups of stations with specific geographic distributions or relations to certain sediment types. Fager's recurrent group analysis for the 36 most frequently occurring species resulted in eight groups and five species that were strongly associated with one or more of the recurrent groups. Most tests of interspecific relations among the species within the groups were not significant, and it was concluded that the analysis was only partly useful for delimiting species groups with ecological significance. The Q-mode of the factor analysis resulted in three groups of stations distributed in bands parallel to the coast, and each group of stations (community) could be recognized by its distinct sediment types or depth distribution. The R-mode of the factor analysis gave six groups of species with specific preferences of depths, sediment types, or geographic distribution. The results of the various techniques were compared, and their application in benthic synecology was discussed.

Increasing attention in recent years has been devoted to the application of statistical techniques in the analysis and interpretation of geologic and oceanographic data. Equally important, but less well explored, are methods for efficient experimental design. The theory of linear programming provides plans for optimal sampling of geologic and oceanographic phenomena. Of particular significance are solutions to problems of multivariate sampling. Often, a single field sample may be analyzed for a number of oxides, or a number of minerals, or a number of textural parameters. In general, these variables differ in the degree to which they are diagnostic of changes in the phenomenon of interest, and thus they must be known with different levels of precision if they are to be useful. Similarly, the variables differ in the ease with which they may be measured. If a sampling plan is to be most efficient, it must provide the requisite levels of precision for the minimum expenditure of time and effort. Sampling for a single variable may be optimized directly. Sampling for several variables simultaneously usually introduces special difficulties, but if the objective function can be generalized to hold for all variables, solutions can be determined even in this situation.

A number of geological inferences are made from studies of the geographic distributions of sediment textural variables. Evaluation of such distributions requires that information on the total within-station variability be available. In order to obtain information on the relative magnitudes of the within-station and among-station variabilities, bottom sampling on the continental shelf of Washington was done in a stratified-multistage scheme on traverses placed by a systematic random scheme along the coast. Duplicate samples were taken at each of 450 stations and duplicate analyses of nine textural variables were made on each sample. Complete analyses are available for 130 stations. This sampling design leads directly to a three-level, hierarchical analysis of variance in which the F-ra ios of the mean square among stations to that within staitons are measures of the reliability of distributions. The most diagnostic variables for differentiating stations are percentage of sand, percentage of silt, sand/mud ratio, and median phi size. The least diagnostic is percentage of clay.

Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Institute (IV Marine Sciences), Centers of intensified upwelling occur throughout the world and are often associated with topographic irregularities along the coasts and continental shelves. Preliminary observations from a study near Point Conception, California, as well as previous observations from Peru, near 15°S, provide us with some generalizations about coastal upwelling centers. The mean structures of these centers appear to be well-defined regions of low temperature, high nutrient concentrations and low phytoplankton abundance, with characteristic gradients of each of these variables away from the center. The biological productivity of these centers results in the generation of organic particles. The impact of this near-surface productivity on the sediments will depend on the physical structure of the upwelling centers and the variability of this structure

The mean particle size of sediment carried on the bed of the Columbia River increases downstream. The Snake River and other upstream tributaries contribute mostly fine sediment carried in suspension. Many downstream tributaries produce coarser sediment, which is carried largely in the bedload. Bedload is appreciable only in the lower portions of the river, and is a small percentage of the suspended load Large migrating sand waves form the top surface of the bed. The distribution of sediment on some of the reservoir floors changes throughout the year. Sediment deposited during low discharges may be scoured from the reservoirs during periods of high discharge and transported downstream through the dams. The amount of sediment transported by the Columbia River system during a single flood may exceed that which is transported during an entire "average" year. The mineral and chemical composition of Columbia River sediment obtained from reservoir floors suggests that the sediment particles have undergone relatively little chemical weathering. Chemically unstable mineral grains and lithic fragments abound. Quartz and elements considered relatively immobile during chemical weathering show no obvious enrichment in the sediment. The ratio of quartz to all "unstable" constituents (feldspars, mafic minerals, and lithic fragments) decreases downstream, whether the latter are taken individually or as a group. Columbia River sediment is apparently derived from two principal sources: the upstream sediment from surficial deposits is derived ultimately from metamorphic, plutonic, and sedimentary rocks; and downstream sediment is derived largely from the erosion of andesitic volcanic rocks and sediments. The upstream sediment is fine grained and is transported by the Columbia in suspension. The volcanic sediment is coarser and generally forms the bedload. It is likely that these two sediment types remain more or less physically separated during transport and deposition.

Sediment samples from the Columbia River were analyzed for four variable sets: bulk chemistry, trace element chemistry, bulk mineralogy, and heavy mineral content. The variable sets were analyzed by discriminant function analysis and factor analysis to determine the relationships between samples in Columbia River reservoirs as reflected in their distribution in the variable space. Other statistical studies were made to determine the relationships among the variables and changes in the variables related to position in the river and grain size. The distribution of the samples in the variable space indicates changes in the sediment which can be related to changing source areas.

Several geologic inferences are made from studies of the geographic distributions of sediment-texture variables. Evaluation of such distributions requires that information on the total within-station variability be available. To obtain information on the relative magnitudes of the within-station and among-station variabilities, an extensive sampling program was undertaken on the continental shelf of Washington. Sampling was done in a stratified-multistage scheme on traverses placed by a systematic random system along the coast; 450 stations were occupied. Duplicate samples were taken at each station and duplicate analyses were made on each sample. Compete analyses are available for 130 stations. This sampling design leads directly to a three-level, hierarchical analysis of variance. In this analysis, the F-ratios of the mean square among stations to that within stations are measures of the reliability of distributions. Nine textural variables were measured in each of the analyses. Values of the ratios diff red greatly among the variables. Table I indicates the F-ratios for the nine variables analyzed. Each ratio is based on 129 and 130 degrees of freedom. Table I. F-Ratios for Nine Values Analyzed End_of_Article - Last_Page 464

The graphical techniques presently in use in structural petrology are unsatisfactory, except in special cases, due to (1) their limiting assumptions and (2) their inherent imprecision. These difficulties may be overcome by introducing more general assumptions and by treating the data more directly. The “best” axis may be defined for any given set of fabric data by a least squares criterion, based upon a general conical model. In the limits this model reduces to (1) the point distribution which is analyzed in beta diagrams and centrosymmetric point maxima of lineations, and (2) the great circle distribution, which is analyzed in pi diagrams. As defined by the least squares criterion, the best axis may be interpreted as the “factor” (by analogy with factor analysis) which explains a minimum of the variance in the data. A variance surface may be constructed from spacially distributed trial axes, plotted on a spherical surface, and then projected onto a plane. Such surfaces show how the variance explained by trial axes varies with orientation. Variance surfaces allow development and testing of models that approximate the structures under consideration. Examples from metamorphic rocks of the Sierra Nevada show how data may be analyzed and models may be developed.

A factor analysis of 579 bottom sediment samples from the Continental Shelf in the Chukchi and northeastern Bering Seas identified three factors that “explain” 92 percent of the variation of ten granulometric variables. Factor I represents deposition of silts and clays by settling from the water column. Although Factor I is extensively distributed in the areas of quieter water, the extreme values occur where there is an abrupt reduction in transporting capacity. Factor II represents both the provenance of the sand and the deposition or modification of sands by nearshore processes. Factor III represents beach processes and also several processes producing a poorly sorted sediment. The silts and clays from the Yukon River cover the bottom of Norton Sound and are encroaching onto the relict sands of the Chirikov Basin. Together with the muds from other Alaskan rivers, the Yukon sediment is also transported into the Chukchi Sea, in both the coastal water and offshore water. The coastal flow leaves the coast at Point Hope, diverges, and enters the complex circulation in the Chukchi Basin that is controlled by regional winds. Depending upon the atmospheric pressure distribution, the currents may carry much of the sediment off the shelf down Herald Canyon or into the East Siberian Sea, or the bottom water and sediment may remain in residence on the shelf even to a point of minor stagnation of the circulation. Sufficient mud has been deposited to floor the basin. The compensation current from the East Siberian Sea may be a more significant sediment supplier than previously thought, and the northward flow of the Bering Strait current from Point Hope to Point Barrow may be sporadic. The nearshore sands of the southeastern Chukchi Sea are modern, wave sorted in places, and current deposited in other places. Along the Siberian coast and in the northeastern Chukchi Sea, the sands are relict and residual. Residual sediment also occurs on Herald Shoal. Although the seas are ice covered for 9 to 10 months annually, ice rafting is not a dominant sedimentary process. Deposition of fine sediment may occur during this time by settling from the homogeneous water.