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For vessel-based transport of liquid CO2 in carbon capture and storage chains, transport at 8 bar(a) enable significant cost reductions compared to transport at higher pressures for most transport distances and volumes. Transport at even lower pressures could further reduce the costs. There are, however, concerns related to dry ice formation and potential clogging in parts of the chain that could lead to operational issues when operating close to the triple point pressure of CO2. In this paper, results from an experimental campaign to de-risk and gain operational experience from the low-pressure CO2 liquefaction process are described. Six experiments using pure CO2 or CO2/N2 mixtures are presented. In four of the experiments, the liquid product pressure was continuously lowered until dry ice was detected and eventually clogged the system. In the final two experiments, the liquefaction process was run in steady-state at low liquefaction pressures for five hours to ensure that there is no undetected dry ice in the process that could lead to accumulation and operational issues over time. These experiments demonstrate that pure CO2 can be safely liquefied at 5.8 bar(a) and a CO2/N2 mixture can be liquefied at 6.5 bar(a) without issues related to dry ice formation.

For vessel-based transport of liquid CO2 in carbon capture and storage chains, transport at 8 bar(a) enable significant cost reductions compared to transport at higher pressures for most transport distances and volumes. Transport at even lower pressures could further reduce the costs. There are, however, concerns related to dry ice formation and potential clogging in parts of the chain that could lead to operational issues when operating close to the triple point pressure of CO2. In this paper, results from an experimental campaign to de-risk and gain operational experience from the low-pressure CO2 liquefaction process are described. Six experiments using pure CO2 or CO2/N2 mixtures are presented. In four of the experiments, the liquid product pressure was continuously lowered until dry ice was detected and eventually clogged the system. In the final two experiments, the liquefaction process was run in steady-state at low liquefaction pressures for five hours to ensure that there is no undetected dry ice in the process that could lead to accumulation and operational issues over time. These experiments demonstrate that pure CO2 can be safely liquefied at 5.8 bar(a) and a CO2/N2 mixture can be liquefied at 6.5 bar(a) without issues related to dry ice formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The equine cheek tooth battery is part of a very dynamic system. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the curvature and position of the teeth are also involved in such dynamical processes. The alveolar crest was labelled with a radiodense marker (48 cadaver heads, 15 skulls) and laterolateral radiographs were taken. Then a geometrical method was elaborated to determine a cheek tooth's curvature and its position by means of specific angles. This method respects the remarkable changes of the equine dentition throughout life by considering two items: (1) the alveolar crest was taken as a constant landmark, (2) the central axis of the curved dental crown was determined by calculation of a linear regression equation. This equation considered several geometrically determined points on the curved dental crown which had been marked in the radiographs. Our study yielded the following results: Mandibular cheek teeth became more curved with age, but their positions (represented by the so-called mesio-occlusal angle between tooth and alveolar crest) did not change significantly. In maxillary cheek teeth, however, the mesio-occlusal angle became larger with age (indication of change of dental position), while their curvature did not change. Even though changes of the dental position were not always statistically significant, they are discussed as being biologically/functionally relevant. The mandibular anticlinal tooth, i.e. the tooth positioned at a mesio-occlusal angle of about 90 degrees , was not in contact with the maxillary anticlinal tooth. Interestingly, the maxillary anticlinal tooth is known to cause most clinical dental problems.