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NEEDS AND VALUES FOR SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES Setting the Stage for Sustainable Pacific Salmon Fisheries Strategy, E.E. Knudsen, D.D. MacDonald, and C.R. Steward The Needs of Salmon and Steelhead in Balancing Their Conservation and Use, C.V. Burger Science and Management in Sustainable Salmonid Fisheries: The Ball is Not in Our Court, G.F. Hartman, C. Groot, and T. G. Northcote The Importance of "Stock" Conservation Definitions to the Concept of Sustainable Fisheries, K.D. Hyatt and B.E. Riddell The Elements of Alaska's Sustainable Fisheries, F. Ulmer Review of Salmon Management in British Columbia: What Has the Past Taught Us? D.W. Narver Aboriginal Fishing Rights and Salmon Management in British Colombia: Matching Historical Justice with the Public Interest, P. Copes STOCK STATUS The Status of Anadromous Salmonids: Lessons in Our Search for Sustainability, J.E. Williams Endangered Species Act Review of the Status of Pink Salmon From Washington, Oregon, and California, J.J. Hard, R.G. Kope, and W.S. Grant Review of the Status of Coho Salmon from Washington, Oregon, and California, L. Weitkamp, T.C. Wainwright, G.J. Byrant, D.J. Teel, and R.G. Kope Status Review of Steelhead from Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California, P.J. Busby, T.C. Wainwright, and G.J. Bryant Status and Distribution of Chinook Salmon and Steelhead in the Interior Columbia River Basin and Portions of the Klamath River Basin, R.F. Thurow, D.C. Lee, and B.E. Rieman Status and Stewardship of Salmon Stocks in Southeast Alaska, B.W. Van Alen Kamchatka Steelhead: Population Trends and Life History Variation, K.A. Savvaitova, K.V. Kuzischin, and S.V. Maximov EXISTING MANAGEMENT International Management of Fraser River Sockeye Salmon, J.C. Woodey The History and Status of Pacific Northwest Chinook and Coho Salmon Ocean Fisheries and Prospects for Sustainability, G.S. Morishima and K.A. Henry Managing Pacific Salmon Escapements: The Gaps Between Theory and Reality, E.E. Knudsen Research Programs and Stock Status for Salmon in Three Transboundary Rivers: the Stikine, Taku, and Alsek, K. Jensen HABITAT ASSESSMENT The Effects of Forest Harvesting, Fishing, Climate Variation, and Ocean Conditions on Salmonid Populations of Carnation Creek, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, P.J. Tschaplinski Habitat Assessment in Coastal Basins in Oregon: Implications for Coho Salmon Production and Habitat Restoration, K.K. Jones and K.M.S. Moore An Overview Assessment of Compensation and Mitigation Techniques Used to Assist Fish Habitat Management in British Columbia Estuaries, C.D. Levings Human Population Growth and Sustainability of Urban Salmonid Streams in the Lower Fraser Valley, O.E. Langer, F. Hietkamp, and M. Farrell ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION Minimizing Ecological Impacts of Hatchery-Reared Juvenile Steelhead on Wild Salmonids in a Yakima Basin Watershed, G.A. McMichael, T.N. Pearsons, and S.A. Leider Economic Feasibility of Salmon Enhancement Propagation Programs, H.D. Radtke and S. W. Davis The New Order in Global Salmon Markets and Aquaculture Development: Implications for Watershed-Based Management in the Pacific Northwest, G. Sylvia, J.L. Anderson, and E. Hanson Alaska Ocean Ranching Contributions to Sustainable Fisheries, W.W. Smoker, B.A. Bachen, G. Freitag, H.J. Geiger, and T.J. Linley MODELING APPROACHES The Proportional Migration Selective Fishery Model, P. W. Lawson and R.M. Comstock A Simulation Model to Assess Management and Allocation Alternative in Multi-Stock Pacific Salmon Fisheries, N.J. Sands and J. Hartman Defining Equivalent Exploitation Rate Reduction Policies for Endangered Salmons and Stocks, J.G. Norris Decadel Climate Cycles and Declining Columbia River Salmon, J.J. Anderson The Effect of Environmentally Driven Recruitment Variation on Sustainable Yield From Salmon Populations, S.P. Cramer Using Photosynthetic Rates to Estimate the Juvenile Sockeye Salmon Rearing Capacity of British Columbia Lakes, K.S. Shortreed, J.M.B. Hume, and J.G. Stockner HABITAT PROTECTION AND RESTORATION Protecting and Restoring the Habitats of Anadromous Salmonids in the Lake Washington Watershed, an Urbanizing Ecosystem, K.L. Fresh and G. Luchetti Rehabilitating Stream Channels Using Large Woody Debris with Considerations for Salmonid Life History and Fluvial Geomorphic Processes, L.G. Domingues and C.J. Cederholm Development of Options for the Reintroduction and Restoration of Chinook Salmon into Panther Creek, Idaho, D.W. Reiser, M.P. Ramey, and P. Devries Effectiveness of Current Anadromous Fish Habitat Protection Procedures for the Tongass National Forest, Alaska, C.H. Casipit, J. Kershner, T. Faris, S. Kessler, S. Paustian, L. Shea, M. Copenhagen, M. Bryant, and R. Aho Using Watershed Analysis to Plan and Evaluate Habitat Restoration, N.B. Armantrout Watershed Restoration in Deer Creek, Washington - A Ten-Year Review, J.E. Doyle, G. Movassaghi, M. Fischer, and R. Nichols Integrating History into the Restoration of Coho Salmon in Siuslaw River, Oregon, M. Booker TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY Community Education and Cooperation Determine Success in Watershed Restoration: The Asotin Creek Model Watershed Plan, A. Thiessen and L. Vane Spring-Run Chinook Salmon Work Group: A Cooperative Approach to Watershed Management in California, N. Bingham and A. Harthtorne Creating Incentives for Salmon Conservation, R.M. Fujita and T. Foran Long-Term Sustainable Monitoring of Pacific Salmon Populations Using Fishwheels to Integrate Harvesting, Management and Research, M.R. Link and K.K. English Sanctuaries for Pacific Salmon, J.A. Lichatowich, G.R. Rahr, III, S.M. Whidden, and C.R. Steward One Northwest Community - People, Salmon, Rivers, and the Sea: Towards Sustainable Fisheries, D.D. MacDonald, C.R .Steward, and E.R. Knudsen INDEX

Trout and char (hereafter, trout) represent some of the more cul-turally, economically and ecologically important taxa of freshwater fishes worldwide (Kershner, Williams, Gresswell, & Lobón-Cerviá, 2019a). Native to all continents in the Northern Hemisphere (as well as western Mediterranean Africa), trout belong to seven genera (Oncorhynchus, Salvelinus, Salmo, Hucho, Parahucho, Brachymystax and Salvethymus), which are distributed across more than 60 countries (Muhlfeld et al., 2019). Despite their broad im-portance as indicators of biodiversity in cold-water ecosystems (Haak & Williams, 2013), as well as cultural icons for food and rec-reation, nearly half of the world's recognised trout species (IUCN, 2018) are imperilled or at risk of global extinction (Muhlfeld et al., 2018, 2019). The root causes of their vulnerability include broad-scale alteration of landscapes and watersheds, dams, overhar-vest, pollution, interactions with hatchery-bred conspecifics and non-native species. However, emerging threats such as climate change and related problems such as the spread of diseases and parasites pose significant challenges and uncertainties to native trout and their habitats (Kovach et al., 2016; Muhlfeld et al., 2018). Ultimately, conservation of native trout depends on understand-ing their diversity, a willingness to address threats at their root causes and implementing progressive conservation solutions that promote persistence of these iconic species in the face of growing human pressures.

Citizen-based stream monitoring programs have been conducted for decades by local citizens concerned about pollution of their local streams and rivers. In recent years, public participation has increased dramatically as state and federal agencies have developed protocols for citizen science monitoring of stream condition and water quality (Nerbonne and Vondracek 2003; Newman et al. 2012). Furthering the trend has been the dramatic increase in Internet access, web mapping capabilities that facilitate data storage and display, and technological improvements in monitoring equipment (Newman et al. 2012). These developments have broadened the scope of what is feasible to monitor, while bringing down the cost of many monitoring efforts. Anglers have a long history of participation in citizen science initiatives aimed at monitoring streams and improving fisheries. In the United States, angler-based interest in water quality dates from at least 1926 when the Izaak Walton League of America launched water quality monitoring efforts in the eastern United States, which would spin off local programs like Maryland's Save Our Streams (Firehock and West 1995). In Oregon, anglers have collected scale samples from steelhead ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) as part of an age study (Clemens 2015) and teamed up with agencies and insect conservation societies to monitor…

Pacific trout Oncorhynchus spp. in western North America are strongly valued in ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural views, and have been the subject of substantial research and conservation efforts. Despite this, the understanding of their evolutionary histories, overall diversity, and challenges to their conservation is incomplete. We review the state of knowledge on these important issues, focusing on Pacific trout in the genus Oncorhynchus. Although most research on salmonid fishes emphasizes Pacific salmon, we focus on Pacific trout because they share a common evolutionary history, and many taxa in western North America have not been formally described, particularly in the southern extent of their ranges. Research in recent decades has led to the revision of many hypotheses concerning the origin and diversification of Pacific trout throughout their range. Although there has been significant success at addressing past threats to Pacific trout, contemporary and future threats represented by nonnativ...

Climate change is contributing to the severity and rate of stream degradation by changing the timing of peak flows, altering flow regimes, creating more frequent and intense disturbances, and increasing stream temperatures. Herein we describe three case studies of trout stream adaptation that address existing and climate-driven causes of degradation through habitat restoration. The case studies vary in geography and complexity, but all include restoration efforts intended to address multiple causes of stream degradation and improve the resilience of these streams to floods, droughts, and wildfires. Four elements of successful climate adaptation projects emerge: (1) habitat assessments that help drive project location and design, (2) projects that directly address climate change impacts and increase habitat resilience, (3) projects that combine to achieve watershed-scale impacts, and (4) projects that include sufficient monitoring to determine their effectiveness. We describe solutions to common challenges...

Trout are one of the most culturally, economically, and ecologically important taxonomic groups of freshwater fishes worldwide ([ 1 ][1]). Native to all continents in the Northern Hemisphere, trout belong to seven genera, which are distributed across 52 countries. These cold-water specialists

Freshwater fishes continue to decline at a rapid rate despite substantial conservation efforts. Native fish conservation areas (NFCAs) are a management approach emphasizing persistent native fish communities and healthy watersheds while simultaneously allowing for compatible human uses. We identified potential NFCAs in the Upper Colorado River Basin in Wyoming—focusing on Colorado River cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii pleuriticus), flannelmouth sucker (Catostomus latipinnis), bluehead sucker (Catostomus discobolus), and roundtail chub (Gila robusta)—through a process that combined known and modeled species distributions, spatial prioritization analysis, and stakeholder discussions. The network of potential NFCAs is intended to serve as a funding framework for a National Fish and Wildlife Foundation (NFWF) Keystone Initiative focused on Colorado River Basin native fishes. We discuss current opportunities for and impediments to implementing the potential NFCAs we identified for the NFWF Initi...

The status of freshwater fishes continues to decline despite substantial conservation efforts to reverse this trend and recover threatened and endangered aquatic species. Lack of success is partially due to working at smaller spatial scales and focusing on habitats and species that are already degraded. Protecting entire watersheds and aquatic communities, which we term “native fish conservation areas” (NFCAs), would complement existing conservation efforts by protecting intact aquatic communities while allowing compatible uses. Four critical elements need to be met within a NFCA: (1) maintain processes that create habitat complexity, diversity, and connectivity; (2) nurture all of the life history stages of the fishes being protected; (3) include a long-term enough watershed to provide long-term persistence of native fish populations; and (4) provide management that is sustainable over time. We describe how a network of protected watersheds could be created that would anchor aquatic conservation...

Peripheral populations—generally defined as those at the geographic edge of the range—often have increased conservation value due to their potential to maximize within-species biodiversity, retain important evolutionary legacies, and provide the fodder for future adaptation. However, there has been little exploration of their conservation value in aquatic systems. Inland cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) subspecies provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the distribution of peripheral populations and patterns of persistence across a wide range of environmental conditions. Our assessment analyzed range-wide losses of peripheral and core populations since the 1800s, and evaluated the likelihood of persistence for remaining populations of five cutthroat trout subspecies: Bonneville, Colorado River, Yellowstone, Rio Grande, and westslope. For all five, we found that core and peripheral populations have declined substantially, but the amounts of habitat occupied by peripheral populations general...

Warmer water, changes in stream flow, and the increasing frequency and intensity of other disturbances are among the factors associated with climate change that are likely to impact native trout populations in the western USA. We examined how three of these factors—increased summer temperatures, uncharacteristic winter flooding, and increased wildfires—are likely to affect broad-scale population persistence among three subspecies of cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii. Our results suggest that as much as 73% of the habitat currently occupied by Bonneville cutthroat trout O. c. utah, 65% of that occupied by westslope cutthroat trout O. c. lewisi, and 29% of that occupied by Colorado River cutthroat trout O. c. pleuriticus will be at high risk from one or more of the these three factors. Within the next 50 years, wildfire, floods, and other disturbances may have a greater impact on population persistence than increasing water temperature alone. Our results also suggest that the risk will vary subs...

Increasing our ability to synthesize and compare fisheries assessment data among species and across geographic boundaries should facilitate a better understanding of the broad-scale condition of fish resources and necessary management strategies. We describe the Conservation Success Index (CSI), a new tool to analyze the status of native salmonids and facilitate protection, restoration, reintroduction, and monitoring efforts. The CSI provides a framework to evaluate indicators of population integrity, habitat integrity, and future security within native salmonids across all subwatersheds within their historic range. To date, the CSI has been completed for seven native trout and char species with summary status maps, data sheets, spatial analyses of management needs, and analysis of climate change and energy development impacts available at http://tucsi.spatialdynamics.com. Additional species are added annually. Case studies using Bonneville cutthroat trout and brook trout illustrate how the CSI p...

Explosive growth in Las Vegas, Nevada, has stimulated demand for additional water supplies. To meet these needs, local officials hope to obtain rights to about 200,000 acre-feet (246.70 million cubic meters [m3]) per year from a regional groundwater aquifer extending from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Death Valley, California. Officials from satellite communities are pursuing rights to an additional 870,487 acre-feet (1.07 billion m3) per year. If granted, these new permits would trigger declines in groundwater across at least 78 basins covering nearly 130,000 square kilometers. Water-rights decisions have historically interpreted economic development as a more compelling public interest than maintenance of natural systems. If economic development continues to drive allocation decisions, consequent declines in the water table, spring discharge, wetland area, and streamflow will adversely affect 20 federally listed species, 137 other water-dependent endemic species, and thousands of rural domestic and ...

Trout, salmon, grayling and whitefishes (Salmonidae) are among the most ecologically and economically important fishes. They also are among the most vulnerable to global warming, and increasing drought, floods, and wildfires. In North America, salmonids occur from central Mexico northward along coastal regions and mountainous interiors to the Arctic Plains. A variety of existing stressors have reduced population sizes and extent and fragmented habitats, making salmonid populations increasingly vulnerable to climate-driven disturbances. This contribution explores specific threats posed by climate change and suggests actions that can help these coldwater-dependent species adapt to an increasingly warm and uncertain future.

Implemented in 1994, the Aquatic Conservation Strategy of the Northwest Forest Plan was designed to restore and maintain ecological processes for aquatic and riparian area conservation on federal lands in the western portion of the Pacific Northwest. We used decision support models to quantitatively evaluate changes in the condition of selected watersheds. In the approximately 10 years since strategy implementation, watershed condition scores changed modestly, but conditions improved in 64% of 250 sampled watersheds, declined in 28%, and remained relatively the same in 7%. Watersheds that had the largest declines included some where wildfires burned 30-60% of their area. The overall statistical distribution of the condition scores did not change significantly, however. Much of the increase in watershed condition was related to improved riparian conditions. The number of large trees (>51 cm diameter at breast height) increased 2-4%, and there were substantial reductions in tree harvest and other disturbances along streams. Whether such changes will translate into longer-term improvements in aquatic ecosystems across broader landscapes remains to be seen.

The pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) is one of the most critically endangered species in the United States. Recovery implementation occurs primarily through activities of three workgroups that function in the upper, middle, and lower portions of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. The Upper Basin Workgroup (UBW) consists of federal and state agency biologists, state representatives, and university scientists from Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. In August 2003, the UBW requested that the Western Division of the American Fisheries Society (WDAFS) review the existing pallid sturgeon recovery effort in the upper basin and make recommendations to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the Workgroup. The WDAFS assembled a Pallid Sturgeon Recovery Review Committee to assist the UBW in accomplishing this objective. In total, 52 recommendations were offered to the UBW to address recovery needs, organizational problems, funding shortfalls, and technical concerns. Nine critical recomme...

If the success of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) is measured by the number of endangered species that have been recovered and delisted, then the act is not very successful. Only 15 species have been delisted because of recovery in the history of the ESA. The Borax Lake chub (Gila boraxobius), an endangered species restricted to an Oregon spring system, is considered to be on the brink of recovery and may warrant future delisting. A panel of scientists was convened to determine consensus regarding the species' listing status by reviewing: (1) current habitat conditions, (2) implementation of the recovery plan, and (3) applicability of ESA listing factors. Despite substantial progress towards recovery, threats to the species remain, including habitat degradation and the potential introduction of nonnative species. These are problems common to many fishes of highly restricted distribution. Because the Borax Lake chub occurs in a single spring system, the species remains vulnerable to catastrophic ...

Fire performs many beneficial ecosystem functions in dry forests and rangelands across much of North America. In the last century, however, the role of fire has been dramatically altered by numerous anthropogenic factors acting as root causes of the current fire crisis, including widespread logging, road building, fire suppression, habitat fragmentation, urban development, livestock grazing, and, more recently, climate change. The intensity and extent of fires in the western United States, specifically, have dramatically increased over the past several decades. Such shifts in fire behavior have triggered sweeping policy changes that were intended to prevent or contain fires but that pose significant risks to the integrity of ecosystems and the role fire historically played in shaping them. Here, we provide a social and ecological context for summarizing this special issue on fires, including general guidelines and principles for managers concerned about balancing the risks of inaction against the risks of action over extensive areas. Fundamental to our understanding of fire is the notion that it is extremely variable, has multiple causes, and requires ecological solutions that are sensitive to spatial scale and context. Therefore, forest managers must recognize that different forest types have different fire regimes and require fundamentally different fire- management policies. Furthermore, to restore or maintain ecological integrity, including the role of fire, treatments need to be tailored to site-specific conditions with an adaptive approach. We provide a conceptual framework for prioritizing fuel treatments and restoration activities in the wildlands-urban intermix versus those in wildland areas farther from human settlement. In general, the science of conservation biology has much to offer in helping to shape wildfire policy direction; however, conservation biologists must become more engaged to better ensure that policy decisions are based on sound science and that ecological risks are incorporated.

Efforts to suppress wildfires have become increasingly problematic in recent years as costs have risen, threats to firefighter safety have escalated, and detrimental impacts to ecosystems have multiplied. Wildfires that escape initial suppression often expand into large, high-intensity summer blazes. Lost is the legacy of smaller fires that likely burned outside extreme weather and fuel conditions and resulted in less severe impacts. Despite the recognized need for modifications to existing policies and practices, resource agencies have been slow to respond. The spread of exotic species, climate change, and increasing human development in wildlands further complicates the issue. New policies are needed that integrate social and ecological needs across administrative boundaries and broad landscapes. These policies should promote a continuum of treatments with active management and reduction of fuel hazard in wildland-urban interface zones and reintroduction of fire in wildlands. Management goals should focus on restoration of the long-term ecological health of the land. Projects that reduce fuel loads but compromise the integrity of soil, water supplies, or watersheds will do more harm than good in the long run. Despite significant ecological concerns, learning to live with fire remains primarily a social issue that will require greater political leadership, agency innovation, public involvement, and community responsibility.

The fisheries profession is playing a key role in planning and implementing stream restoration projects throughout the world. To date, however, few examples exist of effective stream restoration programs or projects. One of the primary reasons stream restoration projects have not succeeded has been that projects are implemented on a small-scale, site-specific basis. We suggest that stream restoration would have a greater chance of succeeding if planned and implemented at a watershed scale. To do this, stream restoration projects must be expanded beyond instream work to include modification of upslope and riparian conditions that causes stream habitats to decline. In addition, planning for stream restoration at the watershed scale must include other disciplines that better understand these upslope watershed processes.

Broad-scale studies of climate change effects on freshwater species have focused mainly on temperature, ignoring critical drivers such as flow regime and biotic interactions. We use downscaled outputs from general circulation models coupled with a hydrologic model to forecast the effects of altered flows and increased temperatures on four interacting species of trout across the interior western United States (1.01 million km 2 ), based on empirical statistical models built from fish surveys at 9,890 sites. Projections under the 2080s A1B emissions scenario forecast a mean 47% decline in total suitable habitat for all trout, a group of fishes of major socioeconomic and ecological significance. We project that native cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii , already excluded from much of its potential range by nonnative species, will lose a further 58% of habitat due to an increase in temperatures beyond the species’ physiological optima and continued negative biotic interactions. Habitat for nonnative brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis and brown trout Salmo trutta is predicted to decline by 77% and 48%, respectively, driven by increases in temperature and winter flood frequency caused by warmer, rainier winters. Habitat for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss , is projected to decline the least (35%) because negative temperature effects are partly offset by flow regime shifts that benefit the species. These results illustrate how drivers other than temperature influence species response to climate change. Despite some uncertainty, large declines in trout habitat are likely, but our findings point to opportunities for strategic targeting of mitigation efforts to appropriate stressors and locations.

Developing a zero incident safety performance culture in a remote location with a local multi-cultural workforce requires visible management commitment, robust management systems and continuous workforce engagement. A zero total recordable injury rate has been maintained by ConcoPhillips’ Algeria Business Unit since July 2008. This accomplishment represents over three million hours of ongoing simultaneous activities namely operations, construction and drilling. The business was acquired in 2006. The Menzel Lejmat North (MLN) operations facility is located in the southern Sahara desert. In addition to MLN, there is a support base in Hassi Messaoud, a government liaison office in Algiers and the BU headquarters in Houston. MLN has a diverse workforce of approximately 125 staff of 12 nationalities; including company employees, contractors and the national oil company (NOC) secondees. Since OSHA-type statistics are not a regulatory requirement, company standards and self-regulation provide the only basis of influence with the NOC and the contracted workforce. The key points to developing a zero incident safety performance include the following: Management Commitment The management team has delivered a consistent message that promotes planning for safe work, visible line management, support of safe work practices, and continuous improvement of personal and process safety. The concept is to instill safety into everything we do. Management System Implementation The system provides a common language to communicate procedures and to measure progress in a standard context. Line management is accountable for implementing and maintaining these management systems in alignment with the corporate standards, which facilitates continuous HSE performance improvement and ensures compliance. Contractor Engagement All contractors working at our facilities are embraced by a zero incident safety culture that is practiced by management and employees. Safety performance goals and expectations are communicated to everyone to establish one workforce with common objectives.

The American Fisheries Society herein provides a list of depleted Pacific salmon, steelhead, and sea-run cutthroat stocks from California, Oregon, Idaho, and Washington, to accompany the list of rare inland fishes reported by Williams et al. (1989). The list includes 214 native naturally-spawning stocks: 101 at high risk of extinction, 58 at moderate risk of extinction, 54 of special concern, and one classified as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and as endangered by the state of California. The decline in native salmon, steelhead, and sea-run cutthroat populations has resulted from habitat loss and damage, and inadequate passage and flows caused by hydropower, agriculture, logging, and other developments; overfishing, primarily of weaker stocks in mixed-stock fisheries; and negative interactions with other fishes, including nonnative hatchery salmon and steelhead. While some attempts at remedying these threats have been made, they have not been enough to prevent the broad decl...

Globally, the number of recreational fishers is sizeable and increasing in many countries. Associ- ated with this trend is the potential for negative impacts on fish stocks through exploitation or management measures such as stocking and introduction of non-native fishes. Nevertheless, recreational fishers can be instrumental in successful fisheries conservation through active involvement in, or initiation of, conservation projects to reduce both direct and external stressors contributing to fishery declines. Understanding fishers' concerns for sustained access to the resource and developing methods for their meaningful participation can have positive impacts on conservation efforts. We examined a suite of case studies that demonstrate success- ful involvement of recreational fishers in conservation and management activities that span developed and developing countries, temperate and tropical regions, marine and freshwater systems, and open- and closed- access fisheries. To illustrate potential benefits and challenges of involving recreational fishers in fisheries management and conservation, we examined the socioeconomic and ecological contexts of each case study. We devised a conceptual framework for the engagement of recreational fishers that targets particular types of involvement (enforcement, advocacy, conservation, management design (type and location), research, and monitoring) on the basis of degree of stakeholder stewardship, scale of the fishery, and source of impacts (internal or external). These activities can be enhanced by incorporating local knowledge and traditions, tak- ing advantage of leadership and regional networks, and creating collaborations among various stakeholder groups, scientists, and agencies to maximize the probability of recreational fisher involvement and project success.

In proportion to the entire fauna, loss of species may be as great in temperate regions as in tropical regions. To test the validity of this statement we analyzed the status of the native fish fauna of California, using a methodology that quantifies expert knowledge. Of 113 native taxa, 6 percent are extinct, 12 percent are officially listed as threatened or endangered 6 percent deserve immediate listing I7 percent may need listing soon, 22 percent show declining populations but are not yet in serious trouble, and 36 percent appear to be secure. Much of the faunal decline has taken place in recent years; it has included unexpectedly rapid declines of once abundant species. Fish taxa in serious trouble are most likely to be (1) endemic to California, (2) restricted to a small area, (3) occupants of just one drainage basin, (4) part of a fish assemblage of less than five species, and (5) found in isolated springs, warm water streams, or big rivers. Water diversions and introduced species, acting in concert, seem to be the principal causes of the decline of the native fauna, although other types of habitat degradation have contributed as well. The situation in California, with its high degree of endemism (60 percent), may be regarded as extreme but fish faunas in other temperate regions show signs of being nearly as stressed. It is likely that the situation with fish reflects a more general decline of the biota of temperate regions of the world.

The USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management have developed an ecosystem-based management strategy—known as PACFISH—to restore and maintain habitat for the natural production of anadromous salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) on public lands. The strategy provided the foundation for the aquatic and riparian elements of the Scientific Analysis Team report to US District Court Judge Dwyer, the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team report to US President Clinton’s Pacific Northwest Forest Conference, and PACFISH interim direction. Later, PACFISH will be considered as part of comprehensive, long-term strategies for eastern Oregon and Washington and the remainder of the Upper Columbia River Basin. The focus of PACFISH is on restoring and maintaining ecological processes and functions within broadly defined riparian zones rather than the more traditional approach of active instream manipulation. PACFISH consists of the following components: riparian goals; quantified riparian management objectives; standards and guidelines for all land management activities within broad riparian reserves; designation of riparian habitat conservation areas; networks of key watersheds that receive priority analysis, protection, and restoration; watershed analysis; watershed restoration; and monitoring. Individual components may be altered through compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act to meet regional needs.

Introductions of threatened and endangered fishes are often an integral feature in their recovery programs. More than 80% of threatened and endangered fishes have recovery plans that call for introductions to establish a new population or an educational exhibit, supplement an existing population, or begin artificial propagation. Despite a large number of recent and proposed introductions, no systematic procedural policies have been developed to conduct these recovery efforts. Some introductions have been inadequately planned or poorly implemented. As a result, introductions of some rare fishes have been successful, whereas recovery for others has progressed slowly. In at least one instance, the introduced fish eliminated a population of another rare native organism. We present guidelines for introductions of endangered and threatened fishes that are intended to apply when an introduction is proposed to supplement an existing population or establish a new population. However, portions of the guide...

Railroad Valley springfish Crenichthys nevadae were introduced into the outflow of Chimney Hot Springs, Nevada, in 1978 to aid survival of this threatened species. A population of Railroad Valley springfish subsequently became established in artificial pools created in the springs' outflow. The population thrived until spring failure caused the habitat to dry up during the summer of 1981. A second introduction was made in 1982 after springflow returned, and a population of 1,881 adults was estimated in 1985. The population remained robust until 1988, when manipulation of water flow through the pools raised water temperatures above the species' maximum thermal tolerance. Increased pool temperatures forced most of the Railroad Valley springfish to disperse downstream to cooler water outside the refuge boundary. Improved maintenance of water flow allowed surviving fish to partially recover by 1989. Trespass by cattle has been a continuing problem and contributed to losses observed in 1988. Frequent ...

The American Fisheries Society herein provides an update of their now decade-old list of rare North American fishes. The 1989 list adds 139 new taxa to the list developed by Deacon et al. (1979) of 251 fishes and removes 26 for a total of 364 fishes in Canada, United States, and Mexico that warrant protection because of their rarity. The 26 taxa removed from the 1979 list include 16 removed because of better information on their taxonomy or status and 10 because they have become extinct. Not a single fish warranted removal from the list because of successful recovery efforts. In addition, 49 fishes have changed in status but remain on the list: 7 have improved in status, 24 have declined, and 18 have been reclassified because new information revealed that they were either more common or rarer than was earlier believed and, therefore, were incorrectly classified in 1979. Comparison of the 1979 and 1989 lists indicates that recovery efforts have been locally effective for some species, but are clea...

Extinctions of 3 genera, 27 species, and 13 subspecies of fishes from North America are documented during the past 100 years. Extinctions are recorded from all areas except northern Canada and Alaska. Regions suffering the greatest loss are the Great Lakes, Great Basin, Rio Grande, Valley of Mexico, and Parras Valley in Mexico. More than one factor contributed to the decline and extinction of 82% of the fishes. Physical habitat alteration was the most frequently cited causal factor (73%). Detrimental effects of introduced species also were cited in 68% of the extinctions. Chemical habitat alteration (including pollution) and hybridization each were cited in 38% of the extinctions, and overharvesting adversely affected 15% of the fishes. This unfortunate and unprecedented rate of loss of the fishery resource is expected to increase as more of the native fauna of North America becomes endangered or threatened.