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We examine the educative role played by parents in social norm transmission. Using a field experiment, we study whether parents enforce and comply more with norms when their children are present compared to when they are not. We compare similar parents when or after they drop off or pick up their children at school. We find that parents accompanying children, in contrast to parents alone, are more likely to punish norm violators and to provide help to strangers when there is no violation. They also tend to substitute more direct punishment with withholding help as a means of indirect punishment.

International audience; Across low-income countries, limited prospects for high-skill employment and poverty push numerous college graduates into jobs which do not require a college degree. These types of experiences may be advantageous or detracting for the new graduates. In order to examine this issue, we conducted a field experiment in Burundi which elicited preferences of employers with respect to low-skill job experience of recent college graduates. The dataset we acquired through this experiment also allowed us to analyze gender discrimination in hiring. The experiment was supplemented with an employers' survey that aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms at play. Results show that mentioning a low-skill experience on a resume increases the likelihood of being hired, and we did not find evidence of gender discrimination at the initial stage of the hiring process. Interviews with employers suggest that they perceive people with low-skill experience as persevering, hardworking and disciplined rather than persons facing financial difficulties or less competent compared to their classmates. These findings suggest that early graduates may gain an advantage in the hiring process by taking up and signaling their low-skill experiences.

International audience; We experimentally investigate the impact of information disclosure on managing common harms that are caused jointly by a group of liable agents. Subjects interact in a public bad setting and must choose ex ante how much to contribute in order to reduce the probability of causing a common damage. If a damage occurs, subjects bear a part of the loss according to the liability-sharing rule in force. We consider two existing rules: a per capita rule and a proportional rule. Our aim is to analyze the relative impact of information disclosure under each rule. We show that information disclosure increases contributions only under a per capita rule. This result challenges the classical results regarding the positive effects of information disclosure, since we show that this impact may depend upon the legal context. We also show that while a proportional rule leads to higher contributions than a per capita one, the positive effect of disclosure on a per capita rule makes it as efficient as a proportional rule without information disclosure.

International audience; Instauré en 2015 et expérimenté jusque fin 2018, le service militaire volontaire (SMV) a été pérennisé depuis janvier 2019. Ce programme intensif d’accompagnement et de formation, administré par l’armée, cible les jeunes éloignés à la fois de l’emploi et de l’école. En 2019, plus de 1 000 jeunes volontaires ont été accueillis dans l’un des six centres de SMV. En comparant trois cohortes successives de volontaires incorporés entre 2017 et 2019, le constat est celui d’une remarquable stabilité des caractéristiques des jeunes, traduisant un effet d’auto-sélection des candidats qui cherchent à la fois une formation et une solution à leur problème de mobilité géographique /spatiale, sans être rebutés par la militarité de l’accompagnement.

International audience; Dilemmas related to the use of environmental resources concern diverse populations at local or global scales. Frequently, individuals are unable to visualize the consequences of their actions, where they belong in the decision-making line, and have no information about past choices or the time horizon. We design a new one-shot extraction game to capture these dynamic decisions. We present results from a nationwide common pool resource experiment, conducted simultaneously in eleven French cities, involving a total of 2813 participants. We examine, for the first time, the simultaneous impact of several variables on the amount of resource extracted: the local vs. the national scale of the resource, the size of the group (small vs. big), the low vs. high recovery rate of the resource, and the available information. We show that individuals significantly reduce extraction levels in local as compared to national level dilemmas and that providing recommendations on sustainable extraction amounts significantly improves the sustainability of the resource. Overall, women extract significantly less, but care more about preserving the local resource; older participants extract significantly more resources but extract less from the national resource. Our experiment also fulfills a science popularization pedagogical aim, which we discuss..

International audience; This study examines factors determining farmers' investment in organic farming using a contextualized lab-in- the-field experiment with 220 small household farmers in Northern Vietnam. We focus on the role of network structure, information nudge, and social comparison between farmers using three types of networks: circle, star and complete. Our results suggest that, on average, around 64% of the land is invested in organic farming in the complete network in which each farmer is connected to all of the others, while only about 57% of the land is invested in the circle and star network. Moreover, social comparison (i.e., information about the average in-vestment) performs better in a circle network than in a star network. Finally, information nudges about the socially optimal investment could encourage farmers' coordination in all three networks, particularly in the complete network with an increase in organic investment up to 76%.

International audience; We compare individual risk preferences elicited through a classic Ordered Lottery Selection (OLS) procedure with five gambles, and an extended procedure composed of nine gambles. The research question is about the stability of the risk preferences across these two elicitation variants. We implemented a field experiment with 1002 rural households in the Congo Basin from December 2013 to July 2014. We show that 1/3 of the sample is extremely risk averse regardless of the procedure. We found inconsistencies in risk preferences elicited across procedures. Indeed, 45.71% are characterized by instability of preferences, either weak (34.53%) or strong (11.18%); 42.81% of the sample exhibits stable preferences and the remaining 11.48% of the sample-initially risk neutral in the classic procedure-is classified as risk loving in the extended procedure. Undereducation can be seen as the main driver of the strong instability since the incremental change brought about by the attainment of secondary school on the likelihood to remain stable is ten times greater than the other considered drivers.

An experiment carried out in situ during the 2017 French presidential election provides the natural conditions in which to disentangle the motivations of expressive voting and strategic voting as determinants of voters' choice. Under the two-round plurality rule, when voters vote for a single candidate in the first round, they may wish primarily to express which is their favorite candidate, or, rather, to influence the outcome of the second-round outcome by strategic voting. These two motives may coincide or conflict. We show that insincere strategic voting is relatively low in this context since it represents less than 7% of the votes cast. When the expressive and the strategic motives conflict with each other, i.e., where expression requires giving up any influence on the outcome of the election, we show that voters are twice as likely to eschew strategic voting as to vote strategically.

We consider the external validity of laboratory measures of risk attitude. Based on a large-scale experiment using a representative panel of the Dutch population, we test if these measures can explain two different types of behavior: (i) behavior in laboratory risky financial decisions, and (ii) behavior in naturally-occurring field behavior under risk (financial, health and employment decisions). We find that measures of risk attitude are related to behavior in laboratory financial decisions and the most complex measures are outperformed by simpler measures. However, measures of risk attitude are not related to risk-taking in the field, calling into question the methods currently used for the purpose of measuring actual risk preferences. We conclude that while the external validity of measures of risk attitude holds in closely related frameworks, this validity is compromised in more remote settings.

We estimate the causal effects of judges' exposure to communal violence during early childhood on pretrial detention rates by exploiting novel administrative data on judgments and detailed resumes of judicial officers born during 1955-1991. Our baseline result is that judges exposed to communal violence between ages 0 and 6 years are 16% more prone to deny bail than the average judge, with the impact being stronger for the experience of riots between ages 3 and 6 years. The observed judicial stringency is driven by childhood exposure to riots with a higher duration of state-imposed lockdowns and low riot casualties.

International audience; This paper presents an artefactual field experiment with craftsmen working on renovation projects to assess the effect of training programs and incentive schemes on coordination. Workers frequently fail to coordinate their tasks when not supervised by a project coordinator. This is particularly important in the construction sector where it leads to a lack of final performance in buildings. We introduce two different incentives: a first contract paying craftsmen only according to their individual performance, and a second contract paying a group of three craftsmen with a weak-link payment according to the group’s worst performance. In addition, we test these incentives on two different subject groups: one is composed of craftsmen trained to coordinate their tasks, and the others are not. The results suggest that trained subjects coordinate at significantly higher effort levels than non-trained subjects when facing an individual-based incentive. However, when facing a group-based incentive, non-trained subjects seem to ”catch up” trained subjects in terms of coordination level, while these latter subjects do not significantly increase their performance level.

National audience; We conducted an artefactual field experiment in Vietnam to investigate whether and how experiencing a natural disaster affects individual attitudes toward risks. Using experimental and real household data, we show that households in villages affected by a flood in recent years exhibit more risk aversion, compared with individuals living in similar but unaffected villages. Interestingly, this result holds for the loss domain, but not the gain domain. In line with Prospect Theory, Vietnamese households distort probabilities. The distortion is related to aid received and social networks participation, but is unrelated to flood experience.

The PILAEP 2 project (2017-2020) aims to improve thesanitation and water accessconditions of 400,000 inhabitants in 26 outlying districts of Kinshasa. This project is subject to a rigorousand scientific evaluation of its impacts on the population.This research paper presents the results of the first evaluation on living conditionsconducted in 2018 in the project's beneficiary and control areas. The objective of this report isto describe the data from the first of a series of surveys aimed at establishing thebaseline situation. It sets out the pre-project situation of the population in these neighborhoods and compares it where possible with the overall situation of the inhabitants of Kinshasa, our benchmark for assessing the level of precariousness in the surveyed area. The second objective is to compare the control areas and future beneficiary (socalled treated) areas, to verify their similarities, or to identify their possible differences in order to anticipate potentialbiases in the evaluation and ways to remedy them.; Le projet PILAEP 2 (2017-2020) vise à l’amélioration des conditions d’assainissement et d’accès à l’eau de 400 000habitants situés dans 26quartiers périphériques de Kinshasa. Ce projet fait l’objet d’une évaluation rigoureuse et scientifique de ses impacts sur la population. Ce papier de recherche présente les résultats de la première enquête sur les conditions de vie menée en 2018 dans les zones bénéficiaires du projet et les zones de contrôle. Ce rapport a pour objectif de décrire les données de la première d’une série d’enquêtes visant à établir la situation de référence. Il expose la situation avant projet de la population de ces quartiers et la compare lorsque cela est possible avec la situation globale des habitants de Kinshasa, notre point de repère pour évaluerle niveau de précarité dans la zone enquêtée. Le deuxième objectif est de comparer les zones de contrôle et futures zones bénéficiaires (dites traitées), pour vérifier leur similitude, ou pour identifier leurs éventuelles différencesafin d’anticiper les potentiels biais de l’évaluation et les manières d’y remédier.

A widespread transition towards diets based on plant proteins as substitutes for animal proteins would contribute to food system sustainability. Such changes in consumer food choices can be fostered by public policy. We conducted an online experiment to test whether providing consumers with information regarding the negative consequences of meat consumption on the environment or health increases the substitution of animal-based proteins with plant-based proteins. The consumers had to make three meal selections, the first without exposure to information and the latter two after exposure to environmental or health information. One group of consumers served as the control and received no information. The results show that half of the consumers chose meals with animal proteins in all three cases. The information intervention had a limited impact on the average consumer. However, a latent class analysis shows that the information intervention impacted a sub-sample of the consumers. Information policy does not appear to be sufficient for altering consumer behaviour regarding the consumption of animal proteins., Une transition généralisée vers des régimes alimentaires basés sur les protéines végétales comme substituts des protéines animales contribuerait à la durabilité du système alimentaire. De tels changements dans les choix alimentaires des consommateurs peuvent être encouragés par les politiques publiques. Nous avons mené une expérimentation en ligne pour tester si l’information des consommateurs sur les conséquences négatives de la consommation de viande sur l’envi-ronnement ou la santé augmente la substitution des protéines d’origine animale par des protéines d’origine végétale. Les consommateurs devaient faire trois choix de repas, le premier sans exposition à l’information et les deux derniers après exposition à l’information environnementale ou sanitaire. Un groupe de consommateurs a servi de témoin et n’a reçu aucune information. Les résultats montrent que la moitié des consommateurs ont choisi des repas à base de protéines animales dans les trois cas. L’apport d’information a eu un impact limité sur le consommateur moyen. Cependant, une analyse de classe latente montre que l’intervention informationnelle a eu un impact sur un sous-échantillon de consommateurs. La politique d’information n’apparaît pas suffisante pour modifier le comportement des consommateurs vis-à-vis de la consommation de protéines animales.

Recent researches suggest that insecurity of access to key resources (eg: food, water, electricity) is associated with negative mental health outcomes and signs of anxiety and depression especially in developing countries. In this Master’s thesis, we investigate the influence of water insecurity on subjective well-being. The data come from surveys conducted in a municipality in the peri-urban area of Kinshasa called N’Sele, as part of the impact evaluation of the PILAEP 2 project, which aims to build self-sufficient drinking water solutions in the periphery of Kinshasa. The data include 2,345 individuals who self-declared themselves knowledgeable about water activities from different households in 15 neighbourhoods of N’Sele and they are interviewed in two waves (a baseline in 2018 and a follow-up in 2019). In this thesis, we relate three measures of subjective well-being: emotional distress (represented by Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale ’PSS-score’), happiness measure and life satisfaction index, while water insecurity is approximated by the amount of water collected by the household in the week prior to the survey. In order to avoid the endogeneity of the amount of water collected induced by the self-selection of households in the area where they settle, our identification strategy is based on 2SLS estimates taking a second-order polynomial form of the rainfall shock as instrument. We also include socio-economic variables such as employment status, economics of the household, asset characteristics, and health status to control for confounding factors. The first stage indicates a non-zero impact of our instrument on the explanatory variable and our results for the second stage identify a negative and significant relationship between the amount of water collected and the level of stress: namely, a one-liter increase in the amount of water collected during the week preceding the survey decreased on average the PSS score by 0.004, ceteris paribus. For the alternative measures of well-being, our results for the ordered probit regression model indicate a positive and significant relationship between happiness or life satisfaction and the amount of water collected. These results are encouraging for the formulation of policy measures regarding access to water and maximising happiness, but above all a policy agenda to improve water supply infrastructure is vital to avoid water-related diseases and deaths that subsequently influence the depression levels, the happiness and life satisfaction of sufferers and their relatives, knowing that, according to WHO and UNICEF (2017), unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene are responsible for 88% of the thousand million cases of diarrhoea that result in 1.6 million deaths per year.

Risk is a key dimension of economic decisions, but whether risk attitudes can predict real economic behaviour is still subject to investigation. We measure general practitioners' (GPs) risk attitudes and check for a relationship with variations in prescribing practices. Individual-level risk attitudes are elicited from simple survey choices on a representative national panel of 939 French GPs, and are linked to their volume of lab-test prescriptions through administrative records. Specifically, we estimate individual components of a flexible decision model under risk (rank-dependent utility) using random-coefficient estimations, and then treat these components as predictors of observed lab-test prescribing. We find that (1) GPs exhibit the usual patterns of risk attitudes: risk aversion and inverse S-shaped probability weighting prevails (2) risk aversion captured by the utility function is positively correlated with lab-test prescribing.

National audience; We conducted an experimental study in Haiti testing for the relationship between religious belief and individual risk taking behavior. 774 subjects played lotteries in a standard neutral protocol and subsequently with reduced endowments but in the presence of religious images of Catholic, Protestant and Voodoo tradition. Subjects chose between paying to play a lottery with an image of their choice, and saving their money to play with no image. Those who chose the former are dened as image buyers and those who chose the latter as non-buyers. Image buyers, who tend to be less educated, more rural, and to exhibit greater religiosity, bet more than non-buyers in all games. In addition, in the presence of religious images all participants took more risk, and buyers took more risk when playing in the presence of their chosen images than when playing with other images. We develop a theoretical model calibrated with our experimental data to explore the channels through which religious images might a ect risk-taking. Our results suggest that the presence of images tends to increase individuals' subjective probability of winning the lottery, and that subjects therefore believe in a god who intervenes actively in the world in response to their requests.

This paper presents a survey of the estimation methods available to measure discrimination in the labour market. We review the most widespread methodology that the profession uses in order to evaluate discrimination. Discrimination may occur at three main stages in the labour market: hiring, wage setting and promotion. Most empirical studies deal with the two first discrimination types. In a first section, we will present the evaluation in hiring discrimination and, in a second section, the evaluation of wage discrimination.

We carry out seven distinct and independent rounds of correspondence tests to detect discriminatory behaviour in domains that heretofore have not been subjected to much investigation in the literature: purchasing a used car, purchasing an auto insurance policy, applying for a car loan, purchasing complementary health insurance, enrolling in an adult training program, purchasing an existing small business, and renting vacation accommodations. We seek to discern evidence of discriminatory behaviour according to the criteria of age, gender, ethnic origin, and the locality of residence.

Alors que la plupart des tests de discrimination sont réalisés à une échelle régionale ounationale, cette étude exploite le premier test de discrimination sur le marché du travailréalisé à l’échelle de l’ensemble des entreprises d’un territoire fin : l’Avesnois, qui correspondà un arrondissement administratif de 230 000 habitants. Nous exploitons les résultats d’untest de correspondance mené sur un échantillon de près de 1000 entreprises, tirées au sortau sein d’un ensemble de 9000 unités légales, auxquelles nous avons proposé un couple decandidatures au début du mois d’octobre 2020.Les résultats sont originaux et inattendus. Sur ce territoire particulier et dans le contexteexceptionnel d’une situation économique très déprimée, entre les deux confinementsimposés en réaction à la crise sanitaire, nous ne détectons pas de discriminations selonl’origine aux seuils usuels de significativité statistique, mais nous détectons un effet destigmate associé à un lieu de résidence dans un quartier prioritaire de la politique de la ville.Cet effet de discrimination résidentielle n’existe que pour les hommes. Les femmes habitanten quartier prioritaire bénéficient au contraire d’une prime à l’accès à l’emploi.

Le handicap est l’un des critères de discrimination qui fait l’objet du plus grand nombre de réclamations auprès du Défenseur des Droits et qui est l’un des moins étudiés par les chercheurs. Dans cette recherche, nous évaluons la discrimination dans l’accès à l’emploi selon une situation de handicap en la comparant à trois autres critères de discriminations : l’origine, le sexe et le lieu de résidence. Nous avons choisi de nous intéresser à un type de handicap très répandu, variable dans son intensité et dont l’impact sur la productivité peut être contrôlé : la déficience auditive, l’une des formes de handicap les plus répandues. Nous appliquons la méthode du test de correspondance à deux professions présentes à la fois dans le secteur privé et dans la fonction publique : les responsables administratifs de catégorie A et les aides-soignantes de catégorie C. Entre octobre 2019 et mars 2020, nous avons envoyé 2315 candidatures en réponse à 463 offres d’emploi publiées en Ile-de-France. L’étude consiste en une exploitation statistique des résultats de ces envois. L’étude montre que les discriminations à l’embauche selon le handicap sont fortes, du même ordre de grandeur que celles selon l’origine. Elle montre aussi que les personnes en situation de handicap administrativement reconnue ne bénéficient pas d’un meilleur accès à l’emploi que celles qui n’ont pas cette reconnaissance. Alors que des mesures incitatives existent, qui prévoient des pénalités financières lorsque l’emploi de personnes en situation de handicap est inférieur à un quota de 6 % de la main-d’œuvre dans les entreprises de 20 salariés et plus, nous montrons que ces mesures sont insuffisantes pour annuler les discriminations à l’encontre des personnes en situation de handicap.

National audience; Do people discriminate between co-ethnics and others in cooperative interactions? In an experiment in China, we find that participants in trust games send around 15% more to partners they know to be co-ethnics than to those whose ethnicity they do not know. Re- ceivers’ behavior is determined by amounts received and not by perceived ethnicity. In line with previous literature we find that subjects contribute more to public goods in ethnically homogeneous groups than in mixed groups. We find evidence for a new explanation that is not due to different intrinsic preferences for cooperation with ingroup and outgroup members. Instead, subjects’ willingness to punish in-group members for free-riding is re- duced when out-group members are present. This leads to lower contributions and net earnings in mixed groups. Thus favoritism towards co-ethnics can hurt both those engag- ing in favoritism and those being favored.

International audience; When an employer refuses to recruit a job applicant due to the applicant's place of residence, we speak of redlining in the labour market. There are two explanations for this practice by the employer. The first is the excessive distance between the applicant's place of residence and the workplace, justified by a logic of spatial mismatch. The second is based on the characteristics of the neighbourhood in line with a signal logic. We propose to measure the effects of these two mechanisms using a correspondence test conducted in the Paris region of France for two occupations: waiters and cooks. It appears that distance plays a significant role and reinforces the effect of a disreputable neighbourhood. The most deprived neighbourhoods combine these two types of drawbacks.

International audience; We assess the effects of the Crianza Positiva text and audio e-messaging program on caregiver-child language interaction patterns. The program is a six-month-long intervention for families with children aged 0-2 aimed at strengthening parental competences. Its design exploits behavioral tools such as reminders, suggestions of action, and messages of encouragement to reinforce and sustain positive parenting practices. Families in 24 early childhood centers in Uruguay that completed an 8-weeks workshop were randomized into receiving or not receiving mobile messages. After the program, we videotaped 10-minutes-sessions of free play between the caregiver and the child, and decoded language patterns using automated techniques. The intervention was successful at improving the quality of parental vocalizations, as measured by the parent's pitch range. We also found suggestive evidence of increases in the duration of adult vocalizations. Results are consistent with more frequent parental selfreported involvement in reading, telling stories and describing things to the child. Regarding the child, we find a non-robust decrease in the duration of vocalizations, which we attribute to a crowding-out effect by the caregiver in the context of a fixed 10-minute suggested activity and a more proactive parental role.

Ridesharing, as part of the sharing economy, is a rapidly growing sector and has the potential to solve major environmental and societal challenges related to daily transportation. The main obstacle in expanding ridesharing is motivating drivers and passengers to participate. We conducted a field experiment, in collaboration with a French ridesharing provider, to investigate whether extrinsic monetary incentives have motivation crowding effects for drivers in a real time ridesharing service. For each passenger rideshare request, we randomly assigned 3 euros or 7 euros as the compensation amount to drivers. This amount was shown simultaneously with the ridesharing request, so when the drivers saw the rideshare requests whilst driving, they could decide in real time whether or not to stop to pick up the passengers. After the trip has been completed, the drivers could choose to redeem their gains, and if they did so, we would invite them to a dictator game in which they were able to split their gains between themselves and a charity. The results from 128 rideshares during the northern summer 2017 show that the drivers’ redemption and money split decisions are similar for the 3 euros and 7 euros groups, indicating that there are similar motivation profiles in both groups. Thus, increasing the monetary incentive levels has neither crowding-out nor crowding-in effects. Our results offer crucial policy insights to ridesharing providers. Instead of solely deploying monetary incentives to increase user participation, they could be better served, without having to resort to increased budget outlays, by considering non-monetary incentives which trigger the intrinsic pro-social motivations of the users of a rural ridesharing service.; Porté par la vague de l’économie du partage, le covoiturage est devenu, ces dernières années, un secteur en pleine croissance, offrant un potentiel pour relever de multiples défis environnementaux et sociétaux liés à la mobilité du quotidien. La difficulté pour démocratiser la pratique du covoiturage reste à mobiliser les conducteurs et les passagers d’y recourir. Comprendre les motivations et les barrières des utilisateurs devient vital pour le développement de ce secteur. Nous avons mené une expérience de terrain avec une start-up française du covoiturage pour comprendre les motivations des conducteurs. Plus spécifiquement, nous souhaitons mesurer si l’augmentation de l’incitation monétaire peut engendrer des effets de crowding-out ou de crowding-in sur les motivations intrinsèques. Nous avons recruté des testeurs pour lancer les demandes de covoiturage en tant que passagers. Les conducteurs peuvent voir ces demandes sur leur chemin et décider en temps réel s’ils veulent s’arrêter ou non. Nous attribuons, de manière aléatoire, deux niveaux de compensation à chaque trajet, 3 euros ou 7 euros. La compensation est affichée au moment de la demande du covoiturage. Après le trajet, les conducteurs peuvent décider de l’encaisser ou non. En cas d’encaissement, nous les invitons à jouer « un jeu de dictateur » avec une association caritative comme bénéficiaire. Au total, nous avons collecté 128 observations au cours de l’été 2017. Les résultats montrent que les conducteurs se comportent de manière similaire sur l’encaissement et le partage de la compensation qu’elle soit de 3 euros ou de 7 euros. On en déduit donc une ressemblance de distribution de profils de motivations dans les deux groupes. L’augmentation de l’incitation monétaire n’a ni l’effet crowding-out ni l’effet crowding-in. Nos résultats soulignent des implications sur la politique du covoiturage. Il en ressort que, au lieu de se focaliser uniquement sur les incitations monétaires, les décideurs tant au sein de l’état que des entreprises pourraient réfléchir aux stratégies qui inciteraient à des motivations intrinsèques des utilisateurs afin de favoriser leur participation au covoiturage, dans le même cadre budgétaire voire encore moins.

International audience; Many economists and psychologists have studied the impact of nudges on households' pro-environmental behaviors. Interestingly, "private nudges'' can be imagined for companies. Yet, studies focusing on nudging employees' energy use are rare. The objective of our paper is to explore this issue with the help of a field experiment conducted at 47 French companies' sites. Using a difference-in-difference methodology, the effects of three nudges on employees' energy conservation are tested. The first nudge, "moral appeal'', stresses the responsible use of energy. The second one, "social comparison'', informs employees on the energy consumption of other firms participating in the experiment. Finally, the third nudge, "stickers'', alerts employees about good energy conservation practices. Our results stress the complementarity of these nudges. When implemented alone, the three nudges have no significant effects on energy consumption. However, when the moral appeal and social comparison nudges are combined with the stickers one, they become effective.

International audience; This paper presents data from a survey leading up to the 2016 US presidential elections. Participants were asked their opinions about the candidates and were also asked to vote according to three alternative voting rules, in addition to plurality: approval voting, range voting, and instant runoff voting. The participants were split into two groups, one facing a set of four candidates (Clinton, Trump, Johnson, and Stein) and the other a set of nine candidates (the previous four plus Sanders, Cruz, McMullin, Bloomberg, and Castle). The paper studies three issues: (1) How do US voters use these alternative rules? (2) What kinds of candidates, in terms of individual preferences, are favored by which rule? (3) Which rules empirically satisfy the independence of eliminated alternatives? Our results provide evidence that, according to all standard criteria computed on individual preferences, be there utilitarian or of the Condorcet type, the same candidate (Sanders) wins. Evaluative voting rules such as approval voting and range voting might lead to this outcome, contrary to direct plurality and instant runoff voting (that elects Clinton) and to the official voting rule (that elected Trump).

Cigarette filters, the most commonly littered item worldwide, are one of the main sources of marine pollution. However, reducing cigarette littering is a serious challenge for policy makers and environmental authorities: traditional instruments like bans and fines are generally ineffective. In this article, we evaluate the impact of two interventions aimed at reducing smokers’ littering in public areas, like beaches. We run a field experiment at eight beach resorts in the north east coast of Italy. Resorts were randomly assigned to three groups: in the first, we introduced portable ashtrays to test whether smokers respond to the lower effort costs (time plus inconvenience) by disposing of litter properly. In the second set, we added a social cue. The third group of resorts was used as a control with no intervention. Results suggest that reducing the private costs of a proper disposal through mobile ashtrays significantly affects littering, leading to a reduction of 10–12% in the number of cigarette filters dropped in the sand compared to beaches with no ashtrays. Reinforcing this measure with social prompts does not significantly increase the impact driven by the introduction of mobile ashtrays.

International audience; In community-supported agriculture (CSA), consumers face a tradeoff between (i.) the desire to support a CSA farmer and obtain environmentally-friendly goods and (ii.) the risk associated with a long-term commitment. We elicit inequality aversion and risk preferences of a sample of 162 French CSA consumers using incen-tivized field experiments. We find that CSA consumers are concerned about payoff inequalities. While we obtain evidence of advantageous inequality aversion toward CSA farmers, we also find disadvantageous inequality seeking. We find that CSA consumers are risk averse and loss averse and distort probabilities. We also observe that inequality and risk preferences in the loss domain might complement each other to strengthen consumers' support for CSA farmers.

SSRN: 10.2139/ssrn.3683849; International audience; Many voters seem to appreciate the greater freedom of expression afforded by alternative voting rules; in evaluative voting, for example, longer grading scales and/or negative grades seem desirable in so far as, all other things being equal, they allow greater expressivity. The paper studies to what extent the behavior of voters, and the outcomes of elections, are sensitive to the grading scale employed in evaluative (or "range") voting. To this end, we use voting data from an experiment conducted in parallel with the 2017 French presidential election, which aimed to scrutinize the negative grade effect and the length effect in grading scales. First, this paper confirms that the introduction of a negative grade disfavors "polarizing" candidates, those whose political discourse provokes divisive debate, but more generally we establish that it disfavors major candidates and favors minor candidates. Second, under non-negative scales, polarizing candidates may be relatively disfavored by longer scales, especially compared with candidates who attract only infrequent media coverage and who are little known among voters. Third, longer scales assign different weights to the votes of otherwise equal voters, depending on their propensity to vote strategically. Overall, we observe that the benefits of the expressivity provided by longer scales or negative grades need to be balanced against the controversial advantage these give to minor candidates, and their tendency to undermine the principle that each vote should count equally in the outcome of the election.

International audience; In this work, we assess how the organization of recruitment in large companies affects ethnic discrimination. We consider large multi-establishment companies and distinguish two types of organization of recruitment: hiring made through a human resources (HR) department at a centralized level of the company and hiring made at only the level of the establishment concerned by the position, generally by managers in charge of recruitment. Our results indicate that access to a centralized HR department in the selection of applications has an important effect on the level of discrimination, i.e., this type of organization of recruitment results in a significant decrease in the probability that applicants with native-sounding names are solely selected.

International audience; Agriculture is one of the economic sectors most exposed to exogenous risks such as climate hazards and price volatility on agricultural markets. Agricultural policies targeting the adoption of environment-friendly but potentially risk-increasing practices cannot ignore this challenge. Farmers have indeed to decide if they take the foreground risk associated with the adoption of environment-friendly practices, while simultaneously facing exogenous background risk beyond their control. Using a theoretical model and a public good experiment, we analyse the adoption of agri-environmental practices and the effect of agri-environmental subsidies in a context where risks are both foreground and background. While most of the literature on background risk focuses on its impact on individual decisions, we analyse the influence of background risk in a context of strategic uncertainty (contribution to a public good). The results highlight the potential synergies between greening the CAP and supporting risk management. We find that background risk discourages the adoption of green practices, although it affects all farmland independently from the farmer’s choice of practices (environment friendly or conventional). An incentive payment per hectare of land farmed with green practices increases the adoption of risk-increasing practices but is significantly less effective in the presence of background risk.

International audience; One-sentence summary : Randomized controlled trials by behavioural economists pretend to be pragmatic and only interested in what really works to solve practical problems but in reality they have notorious normative and ideological aspects. Key points: Behavioural RCTs ignore contexts and composition effects and reflect the biases of those who perform assessments. Behavioural randomizers presume without demonstrating that market exchanges are the most effective form of regulation for societies in all situations of social life. The positive or negative incentives ("nudges") offered by behavioural economics aim to normalize the behaviour of consumers, users, employees or small/independent producers. They are part of a set of power devices by which individual behaviours are shaped and forced, without their knowledge, to conform to dominant class interests.

This paper, based on a large-scale field experiment, tests whether a one-hour exposure to external female role models with a background in science affects students’ perceptions and choice of field of study. Using a random assignment of classroom interventions carried out by 56 female scientists among 20,000 high school students in the Paris Region, we provide the first evidence of the positive impact of external female role models on student enrollment in STEM fields. We show that the interventions increased the share of Grade 12 girls enrolling in selective (male-dominated) STEM programs in higher education, from 11 to 14.5 percent. These effects are driven by high-achieving girls in mathematics. We find limited effects on boys’ educational choices in Grade 12, and no effect for students in Grade 10. Evidence from survey data shows that the program raised students’ interest in science-related careers and slightly improved their math self-concept. It sharply reduced the prevalence of stereotypes associated with jobs in science and gender differences in abilities, but it made the underrepresentation of women in science more salient. Using machine learning methods, we leverage the diversity of role model profiles to document substantial heterogeneity in the effectiveness of role models and shed light on the channels through which they can influence female students’ choice of study. Results suggest that emphasis on the gender theme is less important to the effectiveness of this type of intervention than the ability of role models to convey a positive and more inclusive image of STEM careers.

International audience; This study explores whether an oath to honesty can reduce both shirking and lying among crowd-sourced internet workers. Using a classic coin-flip experiment, we first confirm that a substantial majority of Mechanical Turk workers both shirk and lie when reporting the number of heads flipped. We then demonstrate that lying can be reduced by first asking each worker to swear voluntarily on his or her honor to tell the truth in subsequent economic decisions. Even in this online, purely anonymous environment, the oath significantly reduced the percent of subjects telling “big” lies (by roughly 27%), but did not affect shirking. We also explore whether a truth-telling oath can be used as a screening device if implemented after decisions have been made. Conditional on flipping response, MTurk shirkers and workers who lied were significantly less likely to agree to an ex-post honesty oath. Our results suggest oaths may help elicit more truthful behavior, even in online crowd-sourced environments

Cette étude présente les résultats de tests de discrimination dans l’accès à l’emploi, correspondants à 17163 demandes émanant de candidats fictifs envoyées entre octobre 2018 et janvier 2019 à 103 très grandes entreprises françaises, selon deux critères, l’origine et le lieu de résidence. Nous utilisons plusieurs méthodes de tests, en combinant des candidatures et des demandes d’information, à la fois en réponse à des offres d’emploi publiées ou de façon spontanée. Nous produisons ainsi des indices de discrimination représentatifs des recrutements au niveau d’une entreprise donnée et comparables d’une entreprise à une autre. Pour l’ensemble des entreprises testées, l’étude met en évidence une discrimination significative et robuste selon le critère de l’origine, à l’encontre du candidat français présumé maghrébin, dans tous les territoires testés. Les résultats ne dépendent pas du type de tests utilisés (ils sont qualitativement les mêmes avec des candidatures spontanées ou avec des réponses à des offres). Nous trouvons également une discrimination plus faiblement significative selon le lieu de résidence, pour une partie des tests. La discrimination à l'égard du demandeur d’origine nord-africaine présumée est plus forte dans les entreprises les plus grandes, dont le chiffre d'affaires est supérieur à la médiane, et se concentre dans quelques secteurs d’activité. En revanche, elle varie peu d'une ville à l'autre. Bien que non significative au niveau agrégé, on constate une discrimination selon le lieu de résidence dans l’industrie et à Paris.

Purpose Mentioning car and motorcycle licences on a resume sends a signal of strong mobility, which should increase the chances of getting a job in congested traffic areas. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether this is the case for both women and men. Design/methodology/approach The authors implement an experimental design in order to test for the existence of gender discrimination. The authors use the first-order stochastic dominance (FOSD) criterion and estimate components models. Findings The authors find that holding a motorcycle licence leads to a counterproductive selection of female candidates, since the highest commuting mobility meets the lowest hiring rate. Research limitations/implications The methodology developed in the paper can be used for all correspondence test data. Originality/value The authors examine effects that have not been observed thus far in the literature, namely, the effects of gender crossed with the effects of the class of driving licence that is mentioned on the resume. The authors also advocate the use of the FOSD criterion to discrimination studies.

Cette étude présente les résultats de trois vagues de tests espacées de six mois permettant de mesurer l’évolution des discriminations dans l’accès à l’emploi selon l’origine et le lieu de résidence dans les trois départements d’Ile-de-France qui ont expérimenté le dispositif des emplois francs, mis en œuvre à partir d’avril 2018 dans près de 200 quartiers de la politique de la ville à titre expérimental. La première vague de test a été effectuée entre février et avril 2018, avant le déploiement des emplois francs, qui consistent en une aide financière aux entreprises en cas d’embauche d’un demandeur d’emploi résidant dans un quartier politique de la ville. La deuxième vague de test a eu lieu six mois après le démarrage du dispositif, entre octobre et décembre 2018. La dernière vague a eu lieu un an après la première, entre février et mai 2019. Les tests portent à chaque fois sur quatre candidats dans trois professions différentes, serveur, chargé de clientèle et comptable. Au total, nous avons répondu à 2436 offres d’emploi, correspondants à 9744 candidatures envoyées entre février 2018 et mai 2019. L’étude met en évidence une discrimination significative et robuste selon le critère de l’origine, à l’encontre du candidat français présumé maghrébin, dans tous les territoires de test et pour les trois professions testées. Nous trouvons également une discrimination plus faiblement significative selon le lieu de résidence, pour une partie des tests. Globalement, nous montrons que le déploiement des emplois francs depuis avril 2018 n’a pas coïncidé avec un changement des discriminations dans l’accès à l’emploi, selon l’origine et selon le lieu de résidence, ni dans leur nature, ni même dans leur ampleur. L’étude indique en outre que l’origine de la faible efficacité du dispositif ne réside pas dans un manque d’information des recruteurs sur les emplois francs.

Why do farm households inefficiently allocate resources across the plots they cultivate? We explore how these production inefficiencies relate to consumption decisions and information sharing within the household. In a lab-in-the-field experiment, male producers allocate too few inputs to their wife's plot, failing to maximize household aggregate profits. They do transfer more inputs when the returns from that plot are higher. Experimental manipulation of information on these returns triggers heterogeneous responses across households. We provide a theoretical framework that rationalizes these findings and further leads to sharp predictions. Joint contribution to a household public good compels spouses to make efficient production decisions. Only households who are in a separate-sphere regime experience inefficiency in farm production and are unable to effectively communicate on returns to avoid extra losses. Consistent with this framework, when we experimentally offer an ex post information verification mechanism, additional losses due to information asymmetries are prevented.

We show in a large-scale field experiment that a brief exposure to female role models working in scientific fields affects high school students’ perceptions and choice of undergraduate major. While the classroom interventions generally reduce the prevalence of stereotypical views on jobs in science and gender differences in abilities, the effects on educational choices are concentrated among high-achieving girls in Grade 12. They are more likelyto enroll in selective and male-dominated STEM programs in college. The most effective role model interventions are those that improved students’ perceptions of STEM careers without overemphasizing women’s underrepresentation in science.

International audience; In this paper, we critically and constructively examine the methodology of evidence-based development economics, which deploys randomized field experiments (RFEs) as its main tool. We describe the context in which this movement started, and illustrate in detail how RFEs are designed and implemented in practice, drawing on a series of experiments by Pascaline Dupas and her colleagues on the use of bednets, saving and governance in Kenya. We show that this line of experiments have evolved to address the limitation of obtaining policy-relevant insights from RFEs alone, characterized as their lack of external validity in the literature. After examining the two prominent responses by leading figures of evidence-based development economics, namely machine learning and structured speculation, we propose an alternative methodological strategy that incorporates two sub-fields, namely experimental economics and behavioral economics, to complement RFEs in investigating the data-generating process underlying the treatment effects of RFEs. This strategy highlights promising methodological developments in RFEs neither captured by the two proposals nor recognized by methodologists, and also guides how to combine different sub-fields of economics.

International audience; Lors du premier tour de l'élection présidentielle du 22 avril 2017, les électeurs de trois bureaux de vote de la commune de Fort-de-France (Martinique) ont été sollicités en vue de tester deux modes de vote : le Vote Alternatif et la règle de Borda à 4. L'objectif de ce article est de rendre compte des résultats de cette expérimentation qui est la première du genre dans les territoires d'outre-mer. Les résultats obtenus font apparaitre des divergences avec les résultats ociels tant au niveau local que national. Sur la base des résultats bruts, en plus d'être le vainqueur sous chacune des règles testées, J.-L. Mélenchon est également le vainqueur de Condorcet alors que J. Cheminade est le perdant de Condorcet sous le vote Alternatif et M. Le Pen est le perdant de Condorcet sous la règle de Borda à 4. Après correction du biais de représentativité et de participation, E. Macron devient le vainqueur pour chacune des règles testées.

Deterrence institutions are widely used in modern societies to discourage rule violations but whether they have an impact beyond their immediate scope of application is usually ignored. Using a quasi-experiment, we found evidence of spillover effects across contexts. We identified fraudsters and non-fraudsters on public transport who were or not exposed to ticket inspections by the transport company. We then measured the intrinsic honesty of the same persons in a new, unrelated context where they could misappropriate money. Instead of having an expected educative effect across contexts, the exposure to deterrence practices increased unethical behavior of fraudsters but also, strikingly, of non-fraudsters, especially when inspection teams were larger. Learning about the prevailing norm is the most likely channel of this spillover effect.

National audience; A growing body of evidence suggests that people exhibit large biases when processing information about themselves, but less is known about the underlying inference process. This paper studies belief updating patterns regarding academic ability in a large sample of students transitioning from middle to highschool in Mexico City. The analysis takes advantage of rich and longitudinal data on subjective beliefs together with randomized feedback about individual perfor-mance on an achievement test. On average, the performance feedback reduces the relative role of priors on posteriors and shifts substantial probability masstoward the signal. Further evidence reveals that males and high-socioeconomic status students tend to process new information on their own ability more effectively.

A Framed Field Experiment was implemented in France in order to compare the relative behavioural responses and then the induced nutritional effectiveness of seven front-of-pack logo formats: The Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA), and six ‘choice logos’ such as Green Keyhole or Traffic Lights. From a consumer point of view, while GDA requires a demanding global-diet heuristic, the choice logos require an easy product comparison heuristic. Our six ‘choice logos’ are different after 3 criteria: aggregate vs. analytical information, shelf vs. all products point of reference, multicolour logos vs. ‘only green’ logos. We measure the effect of each logo on the nutritional quality of actual consumers’ shopping baskets in a controlled experimental shop. We use a standard criterion aggregating the overall density of free sugar, saturated fatty acid and salt. We find that different logo formats generate different nutritional impacts. Some choice logos have better nutritional impacts than GDA. Aggregate and multicolour logos induce best responses. Shelf-referenced logos are not more efficient but they trigger very different behavioural trajectories than logos referenced on all-products.

The ‘standard’ Allingham-Sandmo-Yitzhaki (ASY) model of tax evasion predicts effects oncompliance which depend on the perceived probability of detection, tax rate and penalty forevasion. Compliance effects of detection probabilities and tax rates have been extensively testedempirically, but penalty effects are rarely tested explicitly. This paper examines the effects of latepayment penalties on tax compliance based on an experiment involving New Zealand goods andservice tax (GST) ‘late payers’. Firstly, based on an ASY-type model of tax late payments in whichthe probability of enforcement, rather than detection, is central, we develop a number of testablehypotheses. Secondly, based on a field experiment involving a specific compliance intervention, weexamine how taxpayers respond when given different penalty information. The experiment alsoallows us to consider differences between taxpayers’ stated intentions to comply and subsequentlyobserved compliance. Results suggest that differences in penalty information given to taxpayersand reductions in penalty rates both affect taxpayers stated intentions to comply (pay overdue taxand penalties) as predicted. However, subsequently observed responses generally appearunresponsive to penalties. Nevertheless, various individual taxpayer characteristics are identifiablethat affect both compliance intentions and actual behaviour.

Using a unique database of 204 employees in Senegal, this paper seeks to understand the determinants leading to the choice to enroll (or not) in a health insurance plan. To answer this question, we created three surveys to test certain preferences (time preference and risk aversion) and the role of information. In this paper, we show that Senegalese employees have a very strong preference for the present and a low aversion to loss, which could cause them to not take out insurance. We find that access to information on health insurance plays an essential role in the willingness to enroll. While 12% of employees who received no information about health insurance said they would not want to be insured if they could choose, this proportion dropped to 2% among employees who received positive information about health insurance. These results are econometrically confirmed when controlling for other factors such as gender, age and education. These results show the importance of information on people's perception of health insurance. It is therefore essential to communicate on the functioning of health insurance and the benefits of being covered in order to strengthen adherence to a health insurance system.

We report data from the first incentivized artefactual field experiment conducted in China to understand whether Chinese migrants differ from non-migrants in terms of preferences regarding risk and uncertainty in various contexts. We find that, compared to non-migrants, migrants are significantly more likely to enter competitions when they expect competitive entries from others; however, migrants are not different from non-migrants in risk and ambiguity preferences where strategic uncertainty is absent. Our results suggest that migration may be driven more by a stronger belief in one’s chance of succeeding in an uncertain competitive environment than by differences risk attitudes related to state uncertainty.

This paper is a general presentation and discussion about field experiments on hiring discrimination focusing on implementation, results and limits of this experimental procedure. Most of field experiments applied to french labor market show that job applicants are at risk to face discriminations about gender, ethnic origin, location of housing and presumed religion., Cet article présente et discute les différents aspects de la méthode du testing : sa mise en œuvre, sa portée et ses limites. Un survol des principales études réalisées sur le marché du travail français depuis deux décennies montre l’existence de discriminations à l’embauche en raison du sexe, de l’origine, de la réputation du lieu de résidence et de la religion supposée des candidats à l’emploi.