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In the small intestine, type 2 responses are regulated by a signaling circuit that involves tuft cells and group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). Here, we identified the microbial metabolite succinate as an activating ligand for small intestinal (SI) tuft cells. Sequencing analyses of tuft cells isolated from the small intestine, gall bladder, colon, thymus, and trachea revealed that expression of tuft cell chemosensory receptors is tissue specific. SI tuft cells expressed the succinate receptor (SUCNR1), and providing succinate in drinking water was sufficient to induce a multifaceted type 2 immune response via the tuft-ILC2 circuit. The helminth Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and a tritrichomonad protist both secreted succinate as a metabolite. In vivo sensing of the tritrichomonad required SUCNR1, whereas N. brasiliensis was SUCNR1 independent. These findings define a paradigm wherein tuft cells monitor microbial metabolites to initiate type 2 immunity and suggest the existence of other sensing pathways triggering the response to helminths.

The relationship of occupation to a religious preference is considered one of the best analytical tools in defining the characteristics of Church and chapel goers. William Gould, a licensed curate of Whickham parish in Durham County, England, used this approach to create a parish diary that contained detailed information of parishioners. The diary was proved to be useful in determining the early religious life and practices of England's women and general population.

Thomas Hodgskin, by the mid-1820s, has established a critique of orthodox political economy that posited a sensory basis for individualistic appropriation and offered a cognitive explanation of historical development. The origins of this critique are discussed. Hodgskin's thinking rested upon the causal relationship that he believed connected cognition and action.