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AimAssessing the distribution and persistence of species across their range is a crucial component of wildlife conservation. It demands data at adequate spatial scales and over extended periods of time, which may only be obtained through collaborative efforts, and the development of methods that integrate heterogeneous datasets. We aimed to combine existing data on large carnivores to evaluate population dynamics and improve knowledge on their distribution nationwide.LocationBotswana.MethodsBetween 2010 and 2016, we collated data on African wild dog, cheetah, leopard, brown and spotted hyaena and lion gathered with different survey methods by independent researchers across Botswana. We used a multi-species, multi-method dynamic occupancy model to analyse factors influencing occupancy, persistence and colonization, while accounting for imperfect detection. Lastly, we used the gained knowledge to predict the probability of occurrence of each species countrywide.ResultsWildlife areas and communal rangelands had similar occupancy probabilities for most species. Large carnivore occupancy was low in commercial farming areas and where livestock density was high, except for brown hyaena. Lion occupancy was negatively associated with human density; lion and spotted hyaena occupancy was high where rainfall was high, while the opposite applied to brown hyaena. Lion and leopard occupancy remained constant countrywide over the study period. African wild dog and cheetah occupancy declined over time in the south and north, respectively, whereas both hyaena species expanded their ranges. Countrywide predictions identified the highest occupancy for leopards and lowest for the two hyaena species.Main ConclusionsWe highlight the necessity of data sharing and propose a generalizable analytical method that addresses the challenges of heterogeneous data common in ecology. Our approach, which enables a comprehensive multi-species assessment at large spatial and temporal scales, supports the development of data-driven conservation guidelines and the implementation of evidence-based management strategies nationally and internationally. published

The impacts of high ambient temperatures on mortality in humans and domestic animals are well‐understood. However much less is known about how hot weather affects mortality in wild animals. High ambient temperatures have been associated with African wild dog Lycaon pictus pup mortality, suggesting that high temperatures might also be linked to high adult mortality.We analyzed mortality patterns in African wild dogs radio‐collared in Kenya (0°N), Botswana (20°S), and Zimbabwe (20°S), to examine whether ambient temperature was associated with adult mortality.We found that high ambient temperatures were associated with increased adult wild dog mortality at the Kenya site, and there was some evidence for temperature associations with mortality at the Botswana and Zimbabwe sites.At the Kenya study site, which had the highest human impact, high ambient temperatures were associated with increased risks of wild dogs being killed by people, and by domestic dog diseases. In contrast, temperature was not associated with the risk of snare‐related mortality at the Zimbabwe site, which had the second‐highest human impact. Causes of death varied markedly between sites.Pack size was positively associated with survival at all three sites.These findings suggest that while climate change may not lead to new causes of mortality, rising temperatures may exacerbate existing anthropogenic threats to this endangered species, with implications for conservation. This evidence suggests that temperature‐related mortality, including interactions between temperature and other anthropogenic threats, should be investigated in a greater number of species to understand and mitigate likely impacts of climate change. ​, We analyzed mortality in African wild dogs across three sites with differing human pressures. We show that at one site there is an impact of high temperatures on African wild dog mortality and that temperature and human pressure can interact to impact African wild dog mortality. These findings suggest that rising temperatures may exacerbate existing anthropogenic threats to this endangered species. ​

Population density is a fundamental parameter needed to assess wildlife populations but is difficult to obtain given species are often wide-ranging and elusive. Photographic capture-recapture techniques do not require direct observations and thus, have become a common approach for estimating wildlife densities. To date, however, these studies have typically focused on single species. Our research explores study design- and analytical-based approaches for expanding photographic capture-recapture studies to assess multiple species simultaneously. We developed a hybrid-sampling scheme that varied inter-camera distances and used simulations to test the efficacy of this design versus a systematically spaced grid in estimating densities of species with varied space use. Through simulations we found the hybrid design facilitated density estimates for a wider range of species with little or no cost in accuracy for most species. We implemented a hybrid camera design across a 1154-km2 area in northern Botswana to estimate densities of lions, spotted hyenas, leopards, wild dogs, servals, civets, and aardwolves. We estimated densities of these small- to wide-ranging carnivores, where all or some portion of the population was individually identifiable, using spatially explicit capture-recapture and mark-resight models. Mean estimates ranged from 1.2 (95% CI = 0.72–1.99) lions to 10.1 (95% CI = 8.69–11.63) spotted hyenas/100 km2 and provided empirical information needed for the conservation of these species in Botswana. Our research demonstrates how photographic capture-recapture studies can be expanded to estimate the densities of multiple species versus just a single species within a community, thus increasing the conservation value of this globally implemented approach.

Illegal bushmeat hunting of economically and ecologically valuable wildlife populations is emerging as a threat across African savannas. Due to the cryptic nature of illegal hunting, little information exists on the drivers of the bushmeat industry. Here we report on the socioeconomic drivers identified in a broader investigation into illegal bushmeat hunting in rural villages around a southern African savanna ecosystem, the Okavango Delta, Botswana. We conducted interviews with bushmeat hunters and heads of rural households about hunting activities, rural livelihoods, attitudes towards wildlife, and market characteristics of illegal bushmeat. Using generalized linear models, we identified and investigated a set of independent variables that characterize illegal-hunter households. Results revealed that compared to non-hunter households, illegal hunter households (n = 119, 25% of the sample) lived in closer proximity to wildlife, were more likely to farm crops, and more often received income from formal employment by at least one household member. Bushmeat hunting was positively correlated with livestock wealth but not associated with household income. Only 11.4% (n = 44) of non-hunter households reported purchasing bushmeat. Most households (84%) reported incurring costs associated with living near wildlife (e.g., damages to crops or livestock), with no difference between hunter and non-hunter households. Hunters were more likely to say they valued wildlife. We conclude that bushmeat hunting in Botswana is generally supplemental to household core income sources rather than essential for subsistence. We propose two interventions to counter the negative impacts of illegal hunting on the region's lucrative wildlife-based economy: 1) more effective law enforcement that imposes costs for hunting illegally, and 2) development of alternative wildlife-based revenue streams that motivate communities to conserve wildlife.

Climate change imposes an urgent need to recognise and conserve the species likely to be worst affected. However, while ecologists have mostly explored indirect effects of rising ambient temperatures on temperate and polar species, physiologists have predicted direct impacts on tropical species. The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), a tropical species, exhibits few of the traits typically used to predict climate change vulnerability. Nevertheless, we predicted that wild dog populations might be sensitive to weather conditions, because the species shows strongly seasonal reproduction across most of its geographical range. We explored associations between weather conditions, reproductive costs, and reproductive success, drawing on long-term wild dog monitoring data from sites in Botswana (20°S, 24 years), Kenya (0°N, 12 years), and Zimbabwe (20°S, 6 years). High ambient temperatures were associated with reduced foraging time, especially during the energetically costly pup-rearing period. Across all three sites, packs which reared pups at high ambient temperatures produced fewer recruits than did those rearing pups in cooler weather; at the non-seasonal Kenya site such packs also had longer inter-birth intervals. Over time, rising ambient temperatures at the (longest-monitored) Botswana site coincided with falling wild dog recruitment. Our findings suggest a direct impact of high ambient temperatures on African wild dog demography, indicating that this species, which is already globally endangered, may be highly vulnerable to climate change. This vulnerability would have been missed by simplistic trait-based assessments, highlighting the limitations of such assessments. Seasonal reproduction, which is less common at low latitudes than at higher latitudes, might be a useful indicator of climate change vulnerability among tropical species.

Olfactory communication is the primary mode of communication for many mammals, yet research on this form of signalling is still largely descriptive in most species. Thus, despite the apparent importance of scent-marking in the social lives of wild felids, experimental studies directly investigating the function of olfactory communication are lacking. We conducted scent presentation experiments to investigate whether wild African lions can discriminate another lion's social group and sex from a sample of its urine. Our results indicated that lion urine has the potential to signal depositor sex and social group, and that lions can use urine to discriminate males from females and residents from non-residents. The response of lions to urine was also dependent on both the sex and age of the subject receiving the presentation. Female lions responded less frequently to urine from resident females than to either non-resident females or resident males. Males responded more strongly to urine from resident males than resident females, but did not appear to differentiate urine from non-resident and resident females. Observations of flehmen and further scent-marking responses from lions provide additional evidence that lion urine functions in scent-marking. These results establish that urine scent-marks contain sufficient information for receivers to discriminate the sex and social affiliation of the signaller, and are the first to experimentally demonstrate the functional relevance of scent-marking in African lions.

The scent of 3-mercapto-3-methylbutanol (3-M-3-MB), a volatile component of leopard (Panthera pardus) and domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) urine, released at about 10 ng/s from slow-release dispensers, elicited scent-marking from African civet (Civettictis civetta), small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta) and slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea), as well as African wildcat (F. s. cafra). A female leopard was apparently repelled by the scent. The scent-marking and scent-rubbing by species other than African wildcats and leopards were unexpected and have important implications for the design of studies to investigate chemical communication between wild mammals and the use of camera traps to estimate animal numbers. Videos showing the behaviours referred to in this article are available at; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223fs01a ; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223gs01a ; http://www.momo-p.com/showdetail-e.php?movieid=momo161223gg01a .

Summary Evaluating landscape connectivity and identifying and protecting corridors for animal movement have become central challenges in applied ecology and conservation. Currently, resource selection analyses are widely used to focus corridor planning where animal movement is predicted to occur. An animal's behavioural state (e.g. foraging, dispersing) is a significant determinant of resource selection patterns, yet has largely been ignored in connectivity assessments. We review 16 years of connectivity studies employing resource selection analysis to evaluate how researchers have incorporated animal behaviour into corridor planning, and highlight promising new approaches for identifying wildlife corridors. To illustrate the importance of behavioural information in such analyses, we present an empirical case study to test behaviour-specific predictions of connectivity with long-distance dispersal movements of African wild dogs Lycaon pictus. We conclude by recommending strategies for developing more realistic connectivity models for future conservation efforts. Our review indicates that most connectivity studies conflate resource selection with connectivity requirements, which may result in misleading estimates of landscape resistance, and lack validation of proposed connectivity models with movement data. Our case study shows that including only directed movement behaviour when measuring resource selection reveals markedly different, and more accurate, connectivity estimates than a model measuring resource selection independent of behavioural state. Synthesis and applications. Our results, using African wild dogs as a case study, suggest that resource selection analyses that fail to consider an animal's behavioural state may be insufficient in targeting movement pathways and corridors for protection. This failure may result in misidentification of wildlife corridors and misallocation of limited conservation resources. Our findings underscore the need for considering patterns of animal movement in appropriate behavioural contexts to ensure the effective application of resource selection analyses for corridor planning.

Summary Emerging conservation paradigms have shifted from single to multi-species approaches focused on sustaining biodiversity. Multi-species hierarchical occupancy modelling provides a method for assessing biodiversity while accounting for multiple sources of uncertainty. We analysed camera trapping data with multi-species models using a Bayesian approach to estimate the distributions of a terrestrial mammal community in northern Botswana and evaluate community, group, and species-specific responses to human disturbance and environmental variables. Groupings were based on two life-history traits: body size (small, medium, large and extra-large) and diet (carnivore, omnivore and herbivore). We photographed 44 species of mammals over 6607 trap nights. Camera station-specific estimates of species richness ranged from 8 to 27 unique species, and species had a mean occurrence probability of 0·32 (95% credible interval = 0·21–0·45). At the community level, our model revealed species richness was generally greatest in floodplains and grasslands and with increasing distances into protected wildlife areas. Variation among species’ responses was explained in part by our species groupings. The positive influence of protected areas was strongest for extra-large species and herbivores, while medium-sized species actually increased in the non-protected areas. The positive effect of grassland/floodplain cover, alternatively, was strongest for large species and carnivores and weakest for small species and herbivores, suggesting herbivore diversity is promoted by habitat heterogeneity. Synthesis and applications. Our results highlight the importance of protected areas and grasslands in maintaining biodiversity in southern Africa. We demonstrate the utility of hierarchical Bayesian models for assessing community, group and individual species’ responses to anthropogenic and environmental variables. This framework can be used to map areas of high conservation value and predict impacts of land-use change. Our approach is particularly applicable to the growing number of camera trap studies world-wide, and we suggest broader application globally will likely result in reduced costs, improved efficiency and increased knowledge of wildlife communities.

The orthodox view of mammalian chemical communication is that individuals exchange information with members of their own species, but there is now a growing body of evidence that carnivores also send messages to members of different species. A camera trapping study in northern Botswana captured video of 21 species of carnivore, of which 18 scent marked a total of 105 times. Seventeen marks countermarked scent from the same species, and 24 marks countermarked scent from a different species. Of the 39 species of carnivore in southern Africa, 24 are involved in some kind of interspecific scent marking, and smaller webs of interspecific scent marking are found among carnivores in Europe, Australia, north and central America, and the Himalayas. Interspecific scent communication has been missed in the past due to an almost exclusive focus on single-species studies, and because the tool that is essential to study it; camera trapping, has come into widespread use only in the past decade. Now we know that interspecific scent marking is common and widespread, we need to take a closer look at it to understand its role in carnivore guild ecology.

Extinction risk in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) has been linked to their wide-ranging movement behavior. However, drivers of variability in African wild dog ranging are not well understood. This study examines the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on ranging patterns and describes scale-dependent and intra-annual variation in the ranging of 5 packs of African wild dogs in the Okavango Delta from 2007 to 2010. 95% fixed kernel home ranges ( = 739 ± 81 km2) and daily step lengths ( = 8.5 ± 0.5 km) in this study are larger than have generally been reported for African wild dogs elsewhere. Little seasonal variation in daily ranging distances was observed despite home-range contractions during denning to 27% of packs' ranges outside the denning period. During nondenning periods, litter size was the most influential driver of ranging patterns, with large litters associated with reduced pack movements and smaller home ranges at all temporal scales. Pack size was also a significant driver of home-ra...

Aggressive encounters may have important life history consequences due to the potential for injury and death, disease transmission, dispersal opportunities or exclusion from key areas of the home range. Despite this, little is known of their detailed dynamics, mainly due to the difficulties of directly observing encounters in detail. Here, we describe detailed spatial dynamics of inter-pack encounters in African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), using data from custom-built high-resolution GPS collars in 11 free-ranging packs. On average, each pack encountered another pack approximately every 7 weeks and met each neighbour twice each year. Surprisingly, intruders were more likely to win encounters (winning 78.6% of encounters by remaining closer to the site in the short term). However, intruders did tend to move farther than residents toward their own range core in the short-term (1 h) post-encounter, and if this were used to indicate losing an encounter, then the majority (73.3%) of encounters were won by residents. Surprisingly, relative pack size had little effect on encounter outcome, and injuries were rare (

The fastest and most manoeuvrable terrestrial animals are found in savannah habitats, where predators chase and capture running prey. Hunt outcome and success rate are critical to survival, so both predator and prey should evolve to be faster and/or more manoeuvrable. Here we compare locomotor characteristics in two pursuit predator-prey pairs, lion-zebra and cheetah-impala, in their natural savannah habitat in Botswana. We show that although cheetahs and impalas were universally more athletic than lions and zebras in terms of speed, acceleration and turning, within each predator-prey pair, the predators had 20% higher muscle fibre power than prey, 37% greater acceleration and 72% greater deceleration capacity than their prey. We simulated hunt dynamics with these data and showed that hunts at lower speeds enable prey to use their maximum manoeuvring capacity and favour prey survival, and that the predator needs to be more athletic than its prey to sustain a viable success rate.

Background Because empirical studies of animal movement are most-often site- and species-specific, we lack understanding of the level of consistency in movement patterns across diverse taxa, as well as a framework for quantitatively classifying movement patterns. We aim to address this gap by determining the extent to which statistical signatures of animal movement patterns recur across ecological systems. We assessed a suite of movement metrics derived from GPS trajectories of thirteen marine and terrestrial vertebrate species spanning three taxonomic classes, orders of magnitude in body size, and modes of movement (swimming, flying, walking). Using these metrics, we performed a principal components analysis and cluster analysis to determine if individuals organized into statistically distinct clusters. Finally, to identify and interpret commonalities within clusters, we compared them to computer-simulated idealized movement syndromes representing suites of correlated movement traits observed across taxa (migration, nomadism, territoriality, and central place foraging). Results Two principal components explained 70% of the variance among the movement metrics we evaluated across the thirteen species, and were used for the cluster analysis. The resulting analysis revealed four statistically distinct clusters. All simulated individuals of each idealized movement syndrome organized into separate clusters, suggesting that the four clusters are explained by common movement syndrome. Conclusions Our results offer early indication of widespread recurrent patterns in movement ecology that have consistent statistical signatures, regardless of taxon, body size, mode of movement, or environment. We further show that a simple set of metrics can be used to classify broad-scale movement patterns in disparate vertebrate taxa. Our comparative approach provides a general framework for quantifying and classifying animal movements, and facilitates new inquiries into relationships between movement syndromes and other ecological processes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40462-017-0104-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In despotically driven animal societies, one or a few individuals tend to have a disproportionate influence on group decision-making and actions. However, global communication allows each group member to assess the relative strength of preferences for different options among their group-mates. Here, we investigate collective decisions by free-ranging African wild dog packs in Botswana. African wild dogs exhibit dominant-directed group living and take part in stereotyped social rallies: high energy greeting ceremonies that occur before collective movements. Not all rallies result in collective movements, for reasons that are not well understood. We show that the probability of rally success (i.e. group departure) is predicted by a minimum number of audible rapid nasal exhalations (sneezes), within the rally. Moreover, the number of sneezes needed for the group to depart (i.e. the quorum) was reduced whenever dominant individuals initiated rallies, suggesting that dominant participation increases the likelihood of a rally's success, but is not a prerequisite. As such, the ‘will of the group’ may override dominant preferences when the consensus of subordinates is sufficiently great. Our findings illustrate how specific behavioural mechanisms (here, sneezing) allow for negotiation (in effect, voting) that shapes decision-making in a wild, socially complex animal society.

1. Physical barriers contribute to habitat fragmentation, influence species distribution and ranging behaviour, and impact long-term population viability. Barrier permeability varies among species and can potentially impact the competitive balance within animal communities by differentially affecting co-occurring species. The influence of barriers on the spatial distribution of species within whole communities has nonetheless received little attention. 2. During a 4-year period, we studied the influence of a fence and rivers, two landscape features that potentially act as barriers on space use and ranging behaviour of lions Panthera leo, spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta, African wild dogs Lycaon pictus and cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus in Northern Botswana. We compared the tendencies of these species to cross the barriers using data generated from GPS-radio collars fitted to a total of 35 individuals. Barrier permeability was inferred by calculating the number of times animals crossed a barrier vs. the number of times they did not cross. Finally, based on our results, we produced a map of connectivity for the broader landscape system. 3. Permeability varied significantly between fence and rivers and among species. The fence represented an obstacle for lions (permeability = 7.2%), while it was considerably more permeable for hyenas (35.6%) and wild dogs and cheetahs (≥ 50%). In contrast, the rivers and associated floodplains were relatively permeable to lions (14.4%) while they represented a nearly impassable obstacle for the other species (

Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to identify 103 organic compounds from urine, feces, anal glands, and preputial glands of free-ranging African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus. Aliphatic acids were the dominant class of compound in all materials. In addition to aliphatic acids, urine contained dimethyl sulfone, 1,3-propanediol, benzoic acid, 1-methyl-2,4-imidazolidinedione, and squalene as major components: feces contained indole and cholesterol; and both contained 2-piperidone, phenol, 4-methyl phenol, benzeneacetic acid, and benzenepropanoic acid and other compounds. Anal gland secretion was particularly rich in cholesterol and fatty acids, and preputial gland secretion rich in squalene. A large majority of the identified compounds have been reported from other mammals, including species sympatric with African wild dogs. Eleven of the African wild dog components have not been reported previously from mammals and have not been found in sympatric species; one component, 1-methylimidazole-5-carboxaldehyde has not been reported previously as a natural product. In the chemical profiles of their urine, feces, and anal gland secretion African wild dogs differ markedly from other canids.

Highlights ► Pathogens impact African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). ► We evaluated risk factors to pathogen exposure in wild dogs. ► Contact with domestic dogs may increase wild dog exposure to canine distemper virus. ► High wildlife densities may increase wild dog exposure to canine distemper virus. ► Domestic dog contact may increase wild dog exposure to rabies virus and coronavirus., Infectious diseases impact African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), but the nature and magnitude of this threat likely varies among populations according to different factors, such as the presence and prevalence of pathogens and land-use characteristics. We systematically evaluated these factors to assist development of locally appropriate strategies to mitigate disease risk. Wild dogs from 16 sites representing five unconnected populations were examined for rabies virus, canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, and Babesia spp. exposure. Analyses revealed widespread exposure to viral pathogens, but Babesia was never detected. Exposure to CDV was associated with unprotected and protected-unfenced areas where wild dogs likely have a high probability of domestic dog contact and, in the case of protected-unfenced areas, likely reside amongst high wildlife densities. Our findings also suggest that domestic dog contact may increase rabies and coronavirus exposure risk. Therefore, domestic dogs may be a source of CDV, rabies and coronavirus, while wildlife may also play an important role in CDV transmission dynamics. Relatively high parvovirus seroprevalence across land-use types suggests that it might persist in the absence of spillover from domestic dogs. Should intervention be needed to control pathogens in wild dogs, efforts to prevent rabies and coronavirus exposure might be directed at reducing infection in the presumed domestic dog reservoir through vaccination. If prevention of CDV and parvovirus infections were deemed a management necessity, control of disease in domestic dogs may be insufficient to reduce transmission risks, and vaccination of wild dogs themselves may be the optimal strategy.

Deciphering patterns of genetic variation within a species is essential for understanding population structure, local adaptation and differences in diversity between populations. Whilst neutrally evolving genetic markers can be used to elucidate demographic processes and genetic structure, they are not subject to selection and therefore are not informative about patterns of adaptive variation. As such, assessments of pertinent adaptive loci, such as the immunity genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), are increasingly being incorporated into genetic studies. In this study, we combined neutral (microsatellite, mtDNA) and adaptive (MHC class II DLA-DRB1 locus) markers to elucidate the factors influencing patterns of genetic variation in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus); an endangered canid that has suffered extensive declines in distribution and abundance. Our genetic analyses found all extant wild dog populations to be relatively small (Ne

Body size affects almost every aspect of the biology of a species. According to the ‘resource rule’, decreasing resource availability (e.g. prey density) will lead to a reduction in body size or, alternatively, a decline in mass-independent energy expenditure. In the present study, we provide a test of this hypothesis, assessing the effect of significantly decreasing prey density on endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) body size and energy expenditure over a 20-year period. As predicted from the ‘resource rule’, decreasing resource availability resulted in energetic re-allocation: wild dogs' body size decreased significantly (both shorter and slimmer), whereas our fitness-related measure of energy expenditure (i.e. litter size) remained constant over time. A phenotypic change of up to 17% within 20 years, as found in the present study, appears to be unprecedented in a nonharvested large mammal, thus advancing the emerging field of eco-evolutionary dynamics. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105, 8–12.

The felid-specific urinary odour compound 3-mercapto-3-methylbutanol and its precursors have been found in several felid species in captivity, but its presence in wild felids has not previously been investigated. We analysed the naturally deposited scent marks from three species of wild, free-ranging big cats in Northern Botswana and found 3-mercapto-3-methylbutanol in four samples of leopard urine (N = 13), but not in lion urine (N = 15) or cheetah urine (N = 6). Individual variation in the presence of the tomcat compound in samples from big cats in the wild may reconcile conflicting results from captive cats.

Although human behavior is frequently cited as a factor influencing the emergence of disease at the human–animal interface, few empirical studies have demonstrated this relationship. We compare humans and their domestic animals living in close proximity to populations of the endangered African wild dog (AWD, Lycaon pictus) in both Kenya and Botswana. We identify culturally based differences in domestic-stock grazing practices among pastoralists that strongly influence frequency of contact between domestic dogs and AWDs, with parallel differences in disease-related mortality in AWD populations. Using this study and other examples, we illustrate a conceptual model of the interaction between human behavior and emerging infectious diseases at the human–domestic-animal–wildlife interface. Human cultural behavior has the potential to influence pathogen adaptation, host susceptibility, spatial distribution, and pathogen exposure and contact rates between susceptible hosts, reservoir hosts, and pathogen communities. This affects the pathogen's basic reproductive number (R0), ability to invade, and persistence potential. Human behavior may be the key that unlocks the proverbial Pandora's Box, allowing infectious diseases to emerge.

Although leopards are the most widespread of all the big cats and are known for their adaptability, they are elusive and little is known in detail about their movement and hunting energetics. We used high-resolution GPS/IMU (inertial measurement unit) collars to record position, activity and the first high-speed movement data on four male leopards in the Okavango Delta, an area with high habitat diversity and habitat fragmentation. Leopards in this study were generally active and conducted more runs during the night, with peaks in activity and number of runs in the morning and evening twilight. Runs were generally short (less than 100 m) and relatively slow (maximum speed 5.3 m s−1, mean of individual medians) compared to other large predators. Average daily travel distance was 11 km and maximum daily travel distance was 29 km. No direct correlation was found between average daily temperature and travel distance or between season and travel distance. Total daily energy requirements based on locomotor cost and basal metabolic rate varied little between individuals and over time. This study provides novel insights into movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards through quantitative high-resolution measurement of the locomotor, energetic, spatial and temporal movement characteristics. The results are unbiased by methodological and observational limitations characteristic of previous studies and demonstrate the utility of applying new technologies to field studies of elusive nocturnal species.

Parental care of unrelated young in species able to recognize their own offspring is called adoption. Here, we establish adoption as a novel conservation tool for endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) to augment the size of existing packs in situ and to enhance gene flow among isolated populations. Three cases of facilitated adoption of orphaned pups by unrelated free-ranging wild dogs are reported. All pups were successfully integrated into an adoptive pack. Besides individual fitness benefits accruing from larger pack size, we propose that wild dogs may also adopt pups due to benefits relating to the future reproductive value of unrelated individuals. This study will hopefully stimulate further research on the adaptive value and conservation implications of adoption in other endangered species.

Identifying specific signaling components within complex mixtures is a common problem in semiochemistry. Both glandular secretions and excretory products contain components of semiochemical importance, but identifying these signals is problematic because they are usually parts of mixtures with several 100 components, of which only a subset may be involved with signaling. In contrast to waste and metabolic byproducts—which can be expected to vary both between and within individuals according to extrinsic factors—signaling compounds are expected to be uniform among animals sending the same signal and stable over time. In group-living territorial species we would expect there to be a degree of group-specificity in signals that advertise territory residence. As part of an ongoing study investigating and manipulating scent-marking and territorial behavior in African wild dogs, several 100 volatile components have been located from their urine. How many and which, if any, of these have active roles in semiochemical communication of territory residence is currently unknown. Observations of scent marking behaviors of African wild dogs strongly suggest that dominant urine overmarks (DUOs)—where one member of a pair deposits urine on the urine of its partner—are the most likely source of such signals. We used multivariate statistics to investigate >990 separated chemical components (some of which could be multiple compounds) found in these DUOs, and found as few as 10 chemical components that together enabled statistical discrimination of specific dominant pairs. We suggest that this method may be broadly applied across communication systems to locate components of signals within complex “mixtures.”

Changes in stride frequency and length with speed are key parameters in animal locomotion research. They are commonly measured in a laboratory on a treadmill or by filming trained captive animals. Here we show that a clustering approach can be used to extract these variables from data collected by a tracking collar containing a GPS module and tri-axis accelerometers and gyroscopes. The method enables stride parameters to be measured during free ranging locomotion in natural habitats. As it does not require labelled data it is particularly suitable for use with difficult to observe animals. The method was tested on large data sets collected from collars on free ranging lions and African wild dogs and validated using a domestic dog.

The local resource enhancement (LRE) model predicts that in cooperatively breeding species, sex ratios will be biased in favor of the more helpful sex. In this study, we assess the assumptions underlying the LRE model in a population of cooperatively breeding wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Northern Botswana monitored over a 15-year period. In this population, litter size and pup survival to 1 year are strongly affected by pack size and the breeding female’s age, but adult males have a stronger and more linear effect on females’ reproductive performance than do adult females. This asymmetry in the benefits derived from male and female helpers is reflected in male-biased sex ratios in litters at the time pups emerge from the den. Sex ratio biases are most pronounced in the litters of the youngest mothers who live in significantly smaller packs than older females. The presence of potential rivals for the dominant female’s position depresses pup production at the time of emergence, suggesting that competition among females for breeding positions may also contribute to the selective forces affecting birth sex ratios.

Human-related food resources such as garbage dumps and feeding sites have been shown to significantly influence space use, breeding success and population dynamics in a variety of animal species. In contrast, relatively little is known on the effects of unpredictable sources of food, such as carcasses discarded by hunters, on carnivore species. We evaluated the effect of elephant carcasses, mainly deriving from trophy hunting, on the ranging and feeding behavior of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using data from hyenas monitored before and during carcass availability via GPS radio-collars and camera traps, we investigated changes in ranging and feeding behavior over time. Carcass availability influenced hyenas’ ranging behavior for an average of 10–12 days, after which their movements returned to patterns observed before carcass availability. In particular, we observed an increased spatial clustering of locations and reduced speeds (up to 15% less) between successive locations with carcass availability. Consistent feeding at carcasses during the first two weeks was typical, and some individuals fed from elephant carcasses for as long as 50 days. The impact and conservation value of hunting are often assessed based solely on the effects on the hunted species. Our results show that hunting remains can influence other species and suggest that such extra food could have important effects on critical life history processes and ultimately population dynamics. We recommend conservationists and wildlife managers evaluate management strategies and hunting practices regarding carcass disposal in order to incorporate the potential collateral impacts of hunting on non-hunted species in the same community.

Sex differences in African wild dog dispersal behaviour have been described variously as strongly female biased to unbiased. Dispersal from natal home ranges to reproductive home ranges was recorded over 5 years from eight study packs in a free-ranging population of wild dogs in northern Botswana. Analysis of sex differences in natal dispersal was based on (1) age of natal dispersers, (2) dispersing group size, and (3) natal dispersal distance. Dispersal distance was measured by (i) the distance between arithmetic centres of range locations, (ii) spatial association of reproductive and natal home ranges (contiguous versus disjunct), and (iii) pair-wise comparison of dispersal distances between males and females establishing a reproductive home range together. Males in this population dispersed later, in larger groups and further than females. These results contrast with earlier reports for wild dogs and show that females are the more spatially philopatric sex. This pattern of sex-biased dispersal is evaluated in relation to two current, alternative but not mutually exclusive hypotheses: inbreeding avoidance and competition for mating opportunities. All wild dogs of both sexes emigrated when in the presence of their opposite sex parent. Despite frequent opportunities, no dogs mated with close relatives (r≥0.5). The consequences of sex-biased dispersal in wild dogs are consistent with both hypotheses, but the competition for mating opportunities hypothesis is supported only within the context of dispersal behaviour indicative of close inbreeding avoidance.

Parental care of unrelated young is occasionally misdirected and maladaptive from an individual fitness perspective (e.g. interspecific brood parasitism). Alternatively, adults may‘adopt’dependent young and gain direct benefits irrespective of the degree of relatedness. For social species whose fitness is partially a function of group size, direct benefits of increasing group size may provide a mechanism favouring adoption independently of the inclusive fitness consequences. African wild dogs. Lycaon pictus, are social carnivores for which group size has been positively crrelated with reproductive success and competitive ability. Co-operative breeding by wild dogs has been described previously as strongly kin-selected and helpers were assumed to be invariably closely related to offspring. However, observations from this study show that the assumption that helpers are related to those they help is not always valid. A minimum of 25% of study area packs (n=12) contained nonbreeding adults that provided parental care for unrelated pups. Costs of adopting unrelated weaned wild dog pups are slight or nonexistent except for delayed costs due to later potential conflict with mature same-sex adoptees over access to mates. Immediate and delayed direct benefits identified here are associated with increasing group size and may indicate important mechanisms underlyig adoption and the evolution of helping behaviour in wild dogs.

Context Conflicts between wildlife and humans have occurred for millennia, and are major drivers of wildlife decline. To promote coexistence, Botswana established buffer zones called wildlife-management areas (WMAs) adjacent to National Parks and Reserves where communities assume stewardship of wildlife and derive financial benefits from it. In contrast, communities outside WMAs are generally excluded from these benefits despite incurring ‘coexistence costs’, including crop damage and livestock depredation, although they may receive compensation for these losses. Aims To investigate the perceptions and actions of a livestock farming community outside (but surrounded by) WMAs in northern Botswana, especially in relation to predator management. Methods We conducted standard-format interviews with 62 heads of households (cattleposts), and evaluated responses using descriptive and multivariate statistics. Key results Almost half (46%) of respondents expressed negative perceptions of predators, with 67% reporting losses to predation. After disease, predation was the most commonly reported source of livestock losses. Increased age of the head of household was the strongest predictor of reported predation. Few households employed husbandry beyond kraaling at night, but some (21%) reported conducting lethal control of predators. Reported use of lethal control was independent of the household experience with predation and whether they derived financial benefits from wildlife. Instead, households with larger herds were more likely to report using lethal control, despite the most educated farmers tending to have larger herds. Lethal control was almost twice as likely in households previously denied government compensation for losses (42%) than in those granted compensation (23%). Perhaps as a result of perceived failures of the government compensation scheme, most households (91%) supported the development of an independent insurance program, with 67% expressing willingness to pay a premium. Conclusions Our results challenge the assumption that deriving financial benefit from wildlife increases tolerance. A measurable disconnect also exists between the willingness of a household to employ lethal control and their experience with predation, suggesting that lethal control was used pre-emptively rather than reactively. Implications Efforts must be made to connect the financial costs incurred during farming alongside wildlife with the financial benefits derived from wildlife. Where compensation schemes exist, timely payments may reduce retaliatory killing.

Scent marks can potentially be used to manage the movement patterns of free-ranging mammals. We are investigating the possibility that using synthetic scent marks to create artificial range boundaries will help to keep African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) inside the safety of wildlife conservation areas. For this we need to produce synthetic scent marks, and so we need to identify which compounds among the hundreds in real scent marks are semiochemically active so that they can be formulated into the synthetic marks. Approaches that have previously been applied to locate and identify signalling compounds in mammal scent marks cannot be used on African wild dogs and so we are using “reverse-engineering” to locate and identify which compounds we should prioritise in bioassays for spatial semiochemical activity. For a compound, or a suite of compounds to be considered to be a good candidate for a spatial semiochemical role, it has to be species-specific, potentially airborne, persistent, and present in urine and not in faeces. We have used GC-MS to identify 102 components of African wild dog urine, faeces, and preputial tufts. Most of the major components are carboxylic acids and other compounds that are ubiquitous in mammal scents. Eighty-three of the identified components are poor candidates as single compound spatial semiochemicals because they also occur in other mammals that are sympatric with wild dogs. Four components from wild dog urine, pyridine, N,N-dimethylacetamide, propanamide, and ­1-methylimidazole-5-carboxaldehyde, meet the design criteria for spatial semiochemicals. These compounds are priority candidates for testing in artificial scent marks.

Deciphering patterns of genetic variation within a species is essential for understanding population structure, local adaptation and differences in diversity between populations. Whilst neutrally evolving genetic markers can be used to elucidate demographic processes and genetic structure, they are not subject to selection and therefore are not informative about patterns of adaptive variation. As such, assessments of pertinent adaptive loci, such as the immunity genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), are increasingly being incorporated into genetic studies. In this study, we combined neutral (microsatellite, mtDNA) and adaptive (MHC class II DLA-DRB1 locus) markers to elucidate the factors influencing patterns of genetic variation in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus); an endangered canid that has suffered extensive declines in distribution and abundance. Our genetic analyses found all extant wild dog populations to be relatively small (N(e) 30). Furthermore, through coalescent modelling, we detected a genetic signature of a recent and substantial demographic decline, which correlates with human expansion, but contrasts with findings in some other African mammals. We found strong structuring of wild dog populations, indicating the negative influence of extensive habitat fragmentation and loss of gene flow between habitat patches. Across populations, we found that the spatial and temporal structure of microsatellite diversity and MHC diversity were correlated and strongly influenced by demographic stability and population size, indicating the effects of genetic drift in these small populations. Despite this correlation, we detected signatures of selection at the MHC, implying that selection has not been completely overwhelmed by genetic drift.

Bluetongue is an International Office of Epizootics List A disease described as the century's most economically devastating affliction of sheep. Bluetongue (BLU) viruses were thought to infect only ruminants, shrews, and some rodents, but recently, inadvertent administration of BLU virus-contaminated vaccine resulted in mortality and abortion among domestic dogs. We present evidence of natural BLU virus infection among African carnviores that dramatically widens the spectrum of susceptible hosts. We hypothesize that such infection occurred after ingestion of meat and organs from BLU virus-infected prey species. The effect of BLU virus on endangered carnivores such as the cheetah and African wild dog requires urgent investigation. Also, the role of carnivores in the epizootiology of this disease needs elucidation.

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the most widely distributed wild felid in the world, living sympatrically with numerous competitively dominant species in various large carnivore guilds. Leopards generally feed on small to medium-sized ungulates and risk kleptoparasitism from intraguild competitors. One unique, adaptive response to intraguild competition is arboreal caching (‘hoisting’) by leopards. Hoisting behaviour is thought to vary in frequency among individuals, populations, and between sexes. In our study, leopards fed primarily (85% of observed kills) on impala (Aepyceros melampus), which is the most locally abundant potential prey species. Although we did not detect statistical differences in hoisting rates among individuals within each sex, our results confirmed moderate hoisting rates of 35% in an area with medium densities of lions (Panthera leo), spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Sex differences in prey hoisting were related to size, and males as the large...

Context Conflict between large carnivores and livestock outside the boundaries of wildlife areas frequently results in losses to both livestock and predator populations. The endangered African wild dog (Lycaon pictus Temminck, 1820) is wide ranging and unrestricted by conventional fences, thereby posing a major challenge to conservation managers. Wild dogs are territorial and communicate residence using scent marks. Simulating the presence of other wild dogs using translocated foreign scent marks may therefore represent a means to manage wild dog ranging behaviour. Aims To investigate the effectiveness of using targeted scent-mark deployments to signal a wild dog pack to return to their frequented range within the safety of a protected area. Methods We report on the ranging behaviour of a wild dog pack reintroduced into a wildlife area in Botswana with no recent history of resident wild dogs. We describe daily movements by the free-ranging introduced pack and compare these to moves following targeted deployment of scent marks when the wild dog pack had ranged close to or outside the boundaries of the protected area. Key results Targeted foreign scent-mark exposure resulted in the pack moving closer to the geometric centre of its range. The mean distance travelled the day after exposure was significantly greater than the distance travelled the previous day and the mean daily distance moved during the study period. Conclusions Targeted exposure to foreign scent marks proved to be a viable alternative to recapturing dogs that had ranged beyond the boundaries of the wildlife area. Implications This novel approach to managing free-ranging carnivores utilises biologically relevant signals and holds potential not only for the conservation of African wild dogs, but also for other territorial species.

The reasons African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) populations declined to endangered status continent-wide have been difficult to document. However, demographic research to date indicates the following. Annual pack range size (150–3800 km2), density (2–35 dogs/1,000 km2), and territorial propensity of wild dogs appear related to prey density and temporal distribution, and habitat structure. Wild dogs usually live in packs of 10–14 composed of 1 or more adult females unrelated to 1 or more adult males, and their current or older offspring. Sex ratios of adults, yearlings, and pups usually are skewed toward males. Annually, usually 1 but sometimes 2 pack females breed and produce 8–12 pups each (up to 23 total); timing and frequency of parturition appears to coincide with prey abundance. Annual adult survival usually ranges from 0.65–0.85 and likely is most influenced by human-related mortality factors and disease (e.g., rabies and anthrax). Pup survival (0.1473x2013;0.73) appears to be influenced by number of adults in the pack and food availability. Dispersing wild dogs usually do so with same-sex siblings when 1.0–2.0 years old. Nutritional factors and perhaps natal pack composition likely affect the rates at which male or female wild dogs disperse. Dispersing groups join established packs or meet up with opposite sex groups and settle to establish new packs; dispersal distances may exceed 200 km. Observed annual finite rates of increase (k) for African wild dogs have ranged from 0.83–1.77, but potential rates may exceed 2.0. Reduced adult mortality, coupled with high pup survival and their subsequent dispersal as yearlings, can provide a mechanism by which populations decimated by catastrophic disease or human destruction can quickly rebuild if sufficient habitat is available. Collaborative ongoing research throughout a variety of habitats in Africa will facilitate examination of wild dog population dynamics, and provide information critical to conservation efforts.

Although leopards are the most widespread of all the big cats and are known for their adaptability, they are elusive and little is known in detail about their movement and hunting energetics. We used high-resolution GPS/IMU (inertial measurement unit) collars to record position, activity and the first high-speed movement data on four male leopards in the Okavango Delta, an area with high habitat diversity and habitat fragmentation. Leopards in this study were generally active and conducted more runs during the night, with peaks in activity and number of runs in the morning and evening twilight. Runs were generally short (less than 100 m) and relatively slow (maximum speed 5.3 m s−1, mean of individual medians) compared to other large predators. Average daily travel distance was 11 km and maximum daily travel distance was 29 km. No direct correlation was found between average daily temperature and travel distance or between season and travel distance. Total daily energy requirements based on locomotor cost and basal metabolic rate varied little between individuals and over time. This study provides novel insights into movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards through quantitative high-resolution measurement of the locomotor, energetic, spatial and temporal movement characteristics. The results are unbiased by methodological and observational limitations characteristic of previous studies and demonstrate the utility of applying new technologies to field studies of elusive nocturnal species.

Although leopards are the most widespread of all the big cats and are known for their adaptability, they are elusive and little is known in detail about their movement and hunting energetics. We used high-resolution GPS/IMU (inertial measurement unit) collars to record position, activity and the first high-speed movement data on four male leopards in the Okavango Delta, an area with high habitat diversity and habitat fragmentation. Leopards in this study were generally active and conducted more runs during the night, with peaks in activity and number of runs in the morning and evening twilight. Runs were generally short (less than 100 m) and relatively slow (maximum speed 5.3 m s−1, mean of individual medians) compared to other large predators. Average daily travel distance was 11 km and maximum daily travel distance was 29 km. No direct correlation was found between average daily temperature and travel distance or between season and travel distance. Total daily energy requirements based on locomotor cost and basal metabolic rate varied little between individuals and over time. This study provides novel insights into movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards through quantitative high-resolution measurement of the locomotor, energetic, spatial and temporal movement characteristics. The results are unbiased by methodological and observational limitations characteristic of previous studies and demonstrate the utility of applying new technologies to field studies of elusive nocturnal species.