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Connectivity infrastructure is constantly expanding, increasing internet access across countries, regions and socio-political contexts. Given the fast changing geography of the internet, there is a growing demand to strengthen cyber capacity beyond national frameworks, in order to develop a transnationally coherent and coordinated governance approach to cybersecurity. In this context, cyber capacity building initiatives are increasingly central in international debates, with the ambition to support countries in the global south in fostering their cybersecurity strategy from technical and policy perspectives. This article discusses the key factors explaining states’ efforts to enhance their cyber capacity. Based on a cross-national quantitative research approach, the findings contradict IR derived approaches to cybersecurity, which assume that countries develop their cyber capacity according to external security threats, domestic politics, or norms. In line with existing research on the role that science play in policymaking processes more broadly, our results suggest instead that a country’s science and technical knowledge is the most robust explanation for states’ cyber capacity levels. These findings emphasise the need for policymakers to support countries in the global south in developing their cyber capacity beyond national security paradigms by further strengthen education and technical skills in contexts lacking in this resource.

Technology has been given relatively scant attention in empirical international relations scholarship, despite its obvious importance to issues of military power and global security. Much progress is yet to be made into developing a fuller and more precise understanding of the interaction between technology and international relations. Synthesizing existing research will provide a clearer picture of the state of the field with regards to conceptualizing technology, the proliferation of technology, the technological component of national power, the impact of technology on international relations, the information and communication technology revolution and cyber security, and technology in international digital politics. This synthesis highlights key questions regarding what empirical research has to engage with and provides the first step toward addressing these issues.

This paper investigates the emergence of an arms race dynamic in the international cyber domain. The numerous claims made of an ongoing cyber arms race by the media and other analysts have not been backed up by careful empirical analysis. Characterised by the competitive and rapid mutual build-up of capabilities between pairs of states, arms races are a long standing aspect of study in international relations, with statistical evidence suggesting a relationship between these factors and war. Our work extends the tradition of arms race scholarship to the field of cyber security by providing a methodology for accounting for the build-up of cyber capabilities by nation states. We examine the concept of the cyber arms race and provide a plausibility probe for a macro study by examining the cases of the United States and Iran, and of North Korea and South Korea. We employ time series data on a number of indicators to measure each state's scale of increase in cyber capabilities, before investigating whether the states in question are directing their efforts against one another. Our findings suggest that these state dyads have indeed been engaged in cyber arms races, as defined by their competitive and above-normal mutual increase in cyber capabilities. This work furthers our understanding of state behaviour in the cyber domain, and our methodology helps to establish a pathway for the future extensive data collection of this new phenomenon.

(1993). Co‐operation and initiatives : Elizabethan churchwardens and the parish accounts of Mildenhall. Social History: Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 357-380.

Commodore Craig focuses on the organisation and planning behind the maritime war in the Gulf; preparing the maritime campaign plan and ensuring the Task Group was ready and briefed. He attributes the success of the campaign to superior logistics, international cooperation and efficient execution.

Bile salt-stimulated lipase (BSSL) in human milk exists in multiple molecular forms and it has been shown that approximately one-third of lactating mothers secrete two forms.to determine the structural features of BSSL that may give rise to this heterogeneity.Oligosaccharides present in the proline-rich region in the C-terminus of BSSL were investigated using deglycosylating enzymes and lectin affinity probing to determine the origin of the multiple molecular forms.It was found that the variability in the molecular mass of BSSL is due predominantly to glycosylation. The molecular forms contain similar sugar chains; all forms possess the core disaccharide Galbeta1-3GalNAc and beta-D-galactose, fucose linked at alpha1-6 and sialic acid linkage alpha2-3 to galactose.The molecular mass difference in the BSSL molecular forms cannot be attributed to the type of carbohydrate moiety in the sugar chains of the N- and O-linked sites suggesting that the differences arise from the extent or quantity of glycosylation. The oligosaccharides in the C-terminal region contain Lewis x and b and, less prominently, Lewis a antigenic structures. Owing to the presence of these blood-group-related antigenic determinants, the C-terminal region of BSSL may have an adhesive function in cell-cell interactions.

Children receive many drugs which are either unlicensed or used outside the licensing terms (off-label prescribing). Children are thereby at greater risk of side-effects. We sought to determine non-licensed drug usage in a non-specialised paediatric unit because previous studies had examined only specialised centres. Drug charts were examined prospectively over two months. Items were compared with product licenses and determined as licensed, unlicensed or off-label usage. Seventy four charts (237 prescriptions) were examined in which 183 (77.2%) drug courses were licensed. The commonest drugs were antipyretics and antibiotics. In 32 children, 8 items (3.4%) were unlicensed and 46 items (19.4%) were off-label prescriptions. The unlicensed prescriptions were mostly anti-emetics and pro-motility drugs. The three commonest off-label prescriptions were bronchodilators, antibiotics and laxatives. Non-licensed drug usage is common in non-specialised wards and therefore probably all levels of paediatric healthcare provision. Governments must re-examine paediatric drug licensing.

AIM—To assess the efficacy of cisapride in reducing the time required to establish enteral feeds in preterm infants. METHODS—A randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial was conducted of 34 infants of ⩽ 32 weeks of gestation, assigned to receive either cisapride 0.2 mg/kg/dose four times daily (n=18) or placebo (n=16). RESULTS—The time taken by the babies to tolerate full enteral feeds was not significantly different between the groups (median 9.5days vs 10 days). There was a significantly lower incidence of large gastric residuals and regurgitation in the treated group compared with the placebo group. The number of episodes of large gastric residuals per infant was also significantly less. No adverse effects were noted. CONCLUSION—The routine use of cisapride in preterm infants cannot be recommended to decrease the time to establish enteral feeds. Its use may be justified for clincally significant gastric stasis or regurgitation.

Preterm and term human milk samples obtained at various times after delivery were analyzed for the presence of molecular forms of the human milk enzyme, bile salt-stimulated lipase (BSSL). Thirty-five percent of both the preterm and term milk samples contained two molecular forms of BSSL, of variable molecular mass. The remainder contained only one molecular species of either 115 kD (50%) or 120 kD (15%). The number of molecular forms present was not related to length of lactation, maternal age, gestation, or maternal blood group. The specific activity of BSSL purified from term milk was similar to that purified from preterm milk, and there was no difference in specific activity whether one or two molecular forms were present. This study demonstrates heterogeneity of both molecular mass and molecular forms. We conclude that preterm babies fed their own mother's milk are unlikely to be disadvantaged with respect to fat digestion as BSSL secreted in preterm milk appears to be very similar to that produced in term milk, although we cannot exclude other functional differences.

Enrichment of the Monoacylglycerol Fraction With Palmitate Following Spontaneous Hydrolysis of Human Milk Triacylglycerol

Editor—In his editorial van Dijk advocates routine antenatal prophylaxis with anti-D immunoglobulin of all pregnant women who are RhD negative and refers to the consensus conference at the Royal College of Physicians in Edinburgh in April 1997.1 He states that two dose schedules were considered—two doses of 500 IU of anti-D immunoglobulin, one at 28 weeks’ gestation and the other at 34 weeks, and one dose of 1000 IU given between 28 and 30 weeks—both options being equally effective. He implies that the second option reflects Bowman’s practice in Canada.2 Bowman’s programme in fact uses a dose of 1500 IU given at 28 weeks; maternal anti-D immunoglobulin concentrations are then monitored and additional anti-D immunoglobulin is given at around 36 weeks to those women in whom passive anti-D immunoglobulin is no longer detectable. In my presentation to the conference the second option considered was a single dose of 1500 IU—not 1000 IU—of anti-D immunoglobulin at 30 weeks. In the final consensus statement the panel did not indicate a preference between these options and was satisfied that “both seem to work.” A dose of 1000 IU of anti-D immunoglobulin was never considered as the rate of its decay would mean that little or none would remain in a woman’s circulation towards the end of pregnancy, when fetomaternal haemorrhage is known to occur more frequently. Revised guidelines on the use of anti-D immunoglobulin from the British Blood Transfusion Society and the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists agree that the preferred option is two doses of 500 IU of anti-D immunoglobulin.3 This option was chosen partly because it uses less anti-D immunoglobulin—a scarce resource—than a single dose of 1500 IU and partly because two doses of 500 IU given at 28 and 34 weeks achieve a higher circulating concentration of anti-D immunoglobulin as term approaches than does the single larger dose. The revised guidelines were also prompted by the absence of published data on the clinical outcome of giving a single dose of 1500 IU at 30 weeks.

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