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I begin by setting out the core of Post Keynesian macroeconomics, and then distinguish three schools within Post Keynesian theory: the fundamentalist Keynesian approach taken by Paul Davidson, the Kaleckian variant represented by Eckhard Hein, and Hyman Minsky’s financial instability hypothesis. I continue by identifying what Post Keynesian macroeconomics is not, and outlining some very substantial criticisms of both "Old Keynesian" and "New Keynesian" theory. After an historical sketch of the development of Post Keynesian theory in Cambridge (UK) and the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, I summarise the contributions of two eminent Austrian theorists, Josef Steindl and Kurt Rothschild. I then discuss the distinctive Post Keynesian position on questions of macroeconomic policy, offer an explanation of the Global Financial Crisis that began in 2007 and suggest some policy measures that might make similar crises less likely in the future. I conclude by discussing the relationship between Post Keynesianism and three other schools of heterodox economic theory: Marxism, institutionalism and behavioural economics.

ObjectivesDevelop recommendations for women's health issues and family planning in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and/or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).MethodsSystematic review of evidence followed by modified Delphi method to compile questions, elicit expert opinions and reach consensus.ResultsFamily planning should be discussed as early as possible after diagnosis. Most women can have successful pregnancies and measures can be taken to reduce the risks of adverse maternal or fetal outcomes. Risk stratification includes disease activity, autoantibody profile, previous vascular and pregnancy morbidity, hypertension and the use of drugs (emphasis on benefits from hydroxychloroquine and antiplatelets/anticoagulants). Hormonal contraception and menopause replacement therapy can be used in patients with stable/inactive disease and low risk of thrombosis. Fertility preservation with gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues should be considered prior to the use of alkylating agents. Assisted reproduction techniques can be safely used in patients with stable/inactive disease; patients with positive antiphospholipid antibodies/APS should receive anticoagulation and/or low-dose aspirin. Assessment of disease activity, renal function and serological markers is important for diagnosing disease flares and monitoring for obstetrical adverse outcomes. Fetal monitoring includes Doppler ultrasonography and fetal biometry, particularly in the third trimester, to screen for placental insufficiency and small for gestational age fetuses. Screening for gynaecological malignancies is similar to the general population, with increased vigilance for cervical premalignant lesions if exposed to immunosuppressive drugs. Human papillomavirus immunisation can be used in women with stable/inactive disease.ConclusionsRecommendations for women's health issues in SLE and/or APS were developed using an evidence-based approach followed by expert consensus.

When Rudolf Hilferding's 'Finance Capital' was first published, it was regarded as a major event in the development of Marxian political economy. Two of the most important contemporary social democratic theorists greeted its publication with great enthusiasm. For Otto Bauer the book read like a fourth volume of Marx's Capital, while Karl Kautsky concluded that Hilferding had vindicated Marx's approach to economics. Kautsky described Finance Capital as 'a completion of Capital', which both supplemented and revised volumes II and III (Bauer 1909 - 1910; Kautsky 1910 - 1911). Otto Bauer (1881 - 1938) was one of the leading theoreticians of the Austrian socialist party, and himself the author of an acclaimed text on the Marxian interpretation of nationalism (Bottomore and Goode 1978). Karl Kautsky (1854 - 1938), sometimes described as 'the Pope of Marxism', had been the most influential theorist in the German socialist movement since the death of Friedrich Engels in 1883 (Geary 1987). Their praise was not given lightly.

HIV tat is the transactivator of HIV-1, supporting efficient viral replication by stabilizing the transcription of viral genes. Tat can be released from HIV-infected cells and alter several functions in uninfected cells. In the brain, tat induces neuronal dysfunction/toxicity, even though neurons cannot be directly infected with HIV, resulting in CNS pathology, such as the dementia and encephalitis associated with NeuroAIDS. This review discusses the most recent data addressing tat-induced neurotoxicity and integrates these new findings in the context of NeuroAIDS.

The issues at stake in recent debates about imperfectionism in macroeconomic theory are strikingly similar to questions raised in the revisionist controversy in German Marxism in the later 1890s and beyond. Orthodox Marxists claimed that the law of value could operate effectively only under free competition, while their revisionist critics countered that the growth of monopoly would improve coordination between different sectors of the economy and reduce the severity of crises. Some strange and unwitting intellectual alliances can be identified. New Keynesian thinking shows clear affinities with orthodox Marxism, while Post Keynesian ideas on this question resemble closely those of the revisionists.

Nicholas Kaldor (1908-86) and Joan Robinson (1903-83) were almost exact contemporaries and enjoyed very similar careers. Both began as innovative but fundamentally orthodox microeconomists, soon turning (very early, in the case of Robinson) to the defense and development of Keynesian macroeconomics. They were both lifelong socialists and, during the Second World War, energetic propagandists for the fledgling British welfare state. In the 1950s each published a series of penetrating critiques of neoclassical distribution and growth theory, subsequently extending the attack to mainstream analyses of value, international trade, development, and the very foundations of equilibrium methodology. By 1975 Kaldor and Robinson were generally recognized as the founding parents of Post Keynesian economics in Britain, or what its U.S. progenitor Sidney Weintraub described as the “Kaldor-Kalecki-Robinson revolution in distribution theory” (Eichner and Kregel, 1975; Weintraub, 1972, p. 45). For some years they were close personal friends. They spent decades–indeed, Robinson spent her entire working life–in Cambridge, where they were belatedly appointed to chairs in 1966.

Utilization of the biogenic aliphatic organosulphonates taurine, isethionate, sulphoacetaldehyde and sulphoacetate was investigated in 100 soil and freshwater bacteria isolated on modified complete mineral salts medium. More than 90% could use all the compounds as sole sulphur sources, and some 10% used taurine and isethionate as sole carbon and energy, or sole carbon, energy and sulphur sources. None could mineralize sulphoacetaldehyde or sulphoacetate; however, two isolates capable of growth on sulphoacetate as sole carbon, energy and sulphur source were obtained by enrichment culture. The results suggest that in the majority of environmental bacteria the pathways of organosulphonate biodegradation may be independently controlled by the supply of carbon and sulphur to the cell, and that a number of routes may exist for cleavage of the organosulphonate C-S bond.