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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common forms of cancer. Its onset from chronic inflammation is widely accepted. Moreover, dysbiosis plays an undeniable role, thus the use of probiotics in CRC has been suggested. They exhibit both anti- and pro-inflammatory properties and restore balance in the microbiota. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunomodulatory properties of six lactobacilli with probiotic features in an in vitro model of macrophage-like cells and to test these pooled probiotics for their anti-tumour properties in a chemically induced CRC model using Wistar male rats. Upon co-culture of M1- and M2-like macrophages with lactobacilli, cytokine release (TNF-&alpha, IL-1&beta, IL-18, IL-23) and phagocytic activity using fluorescent-labelled bacteria were tested. The effects of orally administered probiotics on basic cancer and immune parameters and cytokine concentration (TNF-&alpha, IL-18) in colon tumours were studied. Tested lactobacilli exhibited both pro- and anti-inflammatory properties in in vitro conditions. In vivo study showed that the administration of probiotics was able to decrease multiplicity, volume and total tumour numbers, restore colon length (p &lt, 0.05) and increase IL-18 production (p &lt, 0.05) in tumour tissue. These data indicate both an immunomodulatory effect of probiotics on distinct macrophage subsets and a protective effect against chemically-induced CRC.

Macrophages (Mϕs) play a central role in mucosal immunity by pathogen sensing and instruction of adaptive immune responses. Prior challenge to endotoxin can render Mφs refractory to secondary exposure, suppressing the inflammatory response. Previous studies demonstrated a differential subset-specific sensitivity to endotoxin tolerance (ET), mediated by LPS from the oral pathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis (PG). The aim of this study was to investigate ET mechanisms associated with Mφ subsets responding to entropathogenic E. coli K12-LPS. M1- and M2-like Mφs were generated in vitro from the THP-1 cell line by differentiation with PMA and Vitamin D3, respectively. This study investigated ET mechanisms induced in M1 and M2 Mφ subsets, by measuring modulation of expression by RT-PCR, secretion of cytokines by sandwich ELISA, LPS receptor, TLR4, as well as endogenous TLR inhibitors, IRAK-M and Tollip by Western blotting. In contrast to PG-LPS tolerisation, E. coli K12-LPS induced ET failed to exhibit a subset-specific response with respect to the pro-inflammatory cytokine, TNFα, whereas exhibited a differential response for IL-10 and IL-6. TNFα expression and secretion was significantly suppressed in both M1- and M2-like Mφs. IL-10 and IL-6, on the other hand, were suppressed in M1s and refractory to suppression in M2s. ET suppressed TLR4 mRNA, but not TLR4 protein, yet induced differential augmentation of the negative regulatory molecules, Tollip in M1 and IRAK-M in M2 Mφs. In conclusion, E. coli K12-LPS differentially tolerises Mφ subsets at the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines, associated with a subset-specific divergence in negative regulators and independent of TLR4 down-regulation.

The calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, sulphur, copper, iron, manganese and zinc content of Nigerian traditionally fermented maize food (akamu) against ground whole maize slurries fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum strains were evaluated using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES). The mineral content of the traditional akamu samples varied significantly (p 73, 2044, 727, 284, 765 and 16 mg kg−1 respectively) levels in the fermented ground whole maize slurries were significantly (p

The inducible antimicrobial peptide human β-defensin-2 (hBD-2) stimulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and bacterial products is essential to antipathogen responses of gut epithelial cells. Commensal and probiotic bacteria can augment such mucosal defences. Probiotic use in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, however, may have adverse effects, boosting inflammatory responses. The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect of selected probiotic strains on hBD-2 production by epithelial cells induced by pathologically relevant pro-inflammatory cytokines and the role of cytokine modulators in controlling hBD-2. Caco-2 colonic intestinal epithelial cells were pre-incubated with heat-killed probiotics, i.e. Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) or Lactobacillus fermentum strain MS15 (LF), followed by stimulation of hBD-2 by interleukin (IL)-1β and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in the absence or presence of exogenous IL-10 or anti-IL-10 neutralising antibody. Cytokines and hBD-2 mRNA and protein were analysed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. LcS augmented IL-1β-induced hBD-2, whereas LF enhanced TNF-α- and suppressed IL-1β-induced hBD-2. LF enhanced TNF-α-induced TNF-α and suppressed IL-10, whereas augmented IL-1β-induced IL-10. LcS upregulated IL-1β-induced TNF-α mRNA and suppressed IL-10. Endogenous IL-10 differentially regulated hBD-2; neutralisation of IL-10 augmented TNF-α- and suppressed IL-1β-induced hBD-2. Exogenous IL-10, however, suppressed both TNF-α- and IL-1β-induced hBD-2; LcS partially rescued suppression in TNF-α- and IL-1β-stimulation, whereas LF further suppressed IL-1β-induced hBD-2. It can be concluded that probiotic strains differentially regulate hBD-2 mRNA expression and protein secretion, modulation being dictated by inflammatory stimulus and resulting cytokine environment.

This study investigated the ability of Lactobacillus plantarum strains (NGL5 and NGL7) and Candida tropicalis (NGY1) previously identified from akamu -a Nigerian fermented maize food with probiotic L. plantarum LpTx and Saccharomyces boulardii SB20 to ferment ground maize slurries based on pH, acidity, microbial biomass, levels of sugars and organic acids, and their antimicrobial activity against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis NCTC 5188, Escherichia coli NCTC 11560, Bacillus cereus NCIMB 11925, Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 3750 and Listeria monocytogenes NCTC 7973 using an agar spot assay. L. plantarum strains either as single or mixed starter cultures with the yeasts had growth rates ≥0.15 h -1 ,with pH significantly (p≤0.05) decreased to ≤3.93 after 12 h and then to ≤3.52 after 72 h and lactic acid >84 mmol L -1 . The yeasts had growth rates ≥0.18 h -1 but pH was ≥4.57 with lactic acid levels ≤20.23 mmol L -1 after 72 h in the single culture fermentation. There was no inhibition in modified MRS agar: 0.2% glucose and 0.2% glucose without Tween 80. Inhibition halos in MRS agar varied from 10.6 to 23.9 mm. S. bourladii was more inhibitory towards L. monocytogenes (8.6 mm) and B. cereus (5.4 mm ) than was C. tropicalis (1.1 and 3.3 mm for L. monocytogenes NCTC 7973 and B. cereus NCIMB 11925 respectively) (0.9 mm) in malt extract agar. This study showed that C. tropicalis was less inhibitory to the pathogens while antimicrobial activities of the L. plantarum strains were mainly due to acidity and the L. plantarum strains either as single or mixed cultures with the yeasts demonstrated strong fermentation ability, with significant decrease in pH which is vital in the choice of starter for product safety.

Growth of Penicillium expansum, an ubiquitous mould found in stored fruit globallyt, was significantly restricted by exposure to 48 h cell-free supernatant of two strains of Lactobacillus plantarum (p

BACKGROUND Akamu is a lactic acid-fermented cereal-based food that constitutes a major infant complementary food in most West African countries. The identities of LAB populations from DGGE analysis and conventionally isolated LAB and yeasts from traditionally fermented akamu were confirmed by PCR sequencing analysis. The relationships between pH, acidity and lactic acid levels and proximate composition of the akamu samples were investigated. RESULTS The LAB communities in the akamu samples comprised mainly Lactobacillus species, including Lb. fermentum, Lb. plantarum, Lb. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus and Lb. helveticus, as well as Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris. Identified yeasts were Candida tropicalis, Candida albicans, Clavispora lusitaniae and Saccharomyces paradoxus. Low pH (3.22–3.95) was accompanied by high lactic acid concentrations (43.10–84.29 mmol kg−1). Protein (31.88–74.32 g kg−1) and lipid (17.74–36.83 g kg−1) contents were negatively correlated with carbohydrate content (897.48–926.20 g kg−1, of which ≤1 g kg−1 was sugars). Ash was either not detected or present only in trace amounts (≤4 g kg−1). Energy levels ranged from 17.29 to 18.37 kJ g−1. CONCLUSION The akamu samples were predominantly starchy foods and had pH < 4.0 owing to the activities of fermentative LAB. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

Probiotics are beneficial microbes that confer a realistic health benefit on the host, which in combination with prebiotics, (indigestible dietary fibre/carbohydrate), also confer a health benefit on the host via products resulting from anaerobic fermentation. There is a growing body of evidence documenting the immune-modulatory ability of probiotic bacteria, it is therefore reasonable to suggest that this is potentiated via a combination of prebiotics and probiotics as a symbiotic mix. The need for probiotic formulations has been appreciated for the health benefits in “topping up your good bacteria” or indeed in an attempt to normalise the dysbiotic microbiota associated with immunopathology. This review will focus on the immunomodulatory role of probiotics and prebiotics on the cells, molecules and immune responses in the gut mucosae, from epithelial barrier to priming of adaptive responses by antigen presenting cells: immune fate decision—tolerance or activation? Modulation of normal homeostatic mechanisms, coupled with findings from probiotic and prebiotic delivery in pathological studies, will highlight the role for these xenobiotics in dysbiosis associated with immunopathology in the context of inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer and hypersensitivity.

Introduction Mucosal macrophages are essential for driving immune responses in mucosal membranes. In homeostatic environments, regulatory responses are predominated by the M2 subset, whereas inflammatory responses are mediated via their ability to switch to a pro-inflammatory M1 subset. Tumour-associated macrophages (TAM) have been found to play a fundamental role in tumour development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify macrophage subset-specific responses to a panel of Lactobacilli with the objective of determining candidates that elicit anti-tumour responses for future in vivo management of colorectal cancer. Material and methods A panel of candidate strains; L. plantarum (C28, VD23, MS18) and L. salivarius (MS3, MS6, MS16) were grown in MRS broth and harvested at the end of the exponential phase. The human monocytic cell line THP-1 was differentiated into M1 and M2 macrophages. Pro-inflammatory cytokine profile (IL1β, IL18, IL23 and TNFα) was investigated upon macrophage culture with Lactobacilli and quantified by sandwich ELISA. Phagocytic properties were measured by culturing macrophage subsets with CFSE-loaded bacteria and analysed by flow cytometry. Results and discussions MS3 strain was the biggest inducer of pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. This strain was even more potent inducer of IL1β, IL18 and IL23 secretion in M2-like macrophages and would represent the most appropriate strain to re-programme M2-like TAMs. VD23 and C28 exhibited a TNFαlo, IL1βlo, IL18lo, IL23lo phenotype. The phagocytic response was generally greater for M2 macrophages, whereby the greatest phagocytosis was observed with VD23 strain (MFI ratio 4,06±0,67) and the lowest response with the MS6 strain (MFI ratio 1,38±0,08).The highest phagocytic properties in M1 macrophages were observed with MS6 (MFI ratio 3,36±0,21), whereas the lowest was with MS3 (MFI ratio 1,28±0,12). Conclusion Selection of potential anti-tumour strains would be dependent on tumour stage, facilitating an M2-like phenotype for earlier stages and an M1-like phenotype for later stages. VD23 would appear to be the best strain to programme anti-inflammatory activity in M1/M2s whereas MS3 would represent the most appropriate strain to re-programme M2-like TAMs. The findings of this study suggest new strategies to probiotic bacteria modulating immune responses, leading to the treatment of diseases by switching to favourable macrophage subsets. This work was supported by VEGA 1/0476/17.

The search for alternatives to in-feed antibiotics in animal nutrition has highlighted the role dietary modulation can play in improving gut health. Current antibiotic replacement strategies have involved the use of microbes beneficial to health (probiotics) or fermentable carbohydrates (prebiotics) or both (synbiotics). The present review recognises the contribution of fermented feeds and fermentable carbohydrates in improving the gut environment in non-ruminants. It proposes the screening of probiotic bacteria for the production of fermented feeds and supplementation of these feeds with fermentable carbohydrates prior to feeding animals. It is suggested that the term 'fermbiotics' should be used to describe this intervention strategy.

Crystalline lysine is frequently added to pig diets to provide the correct amino acid balance. Recent studies have shown that free lysine can be lost when liquid pig feed is fermented with lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The metabolism of lysine was examined, over 72 h, in uninoculated liquid feed (Control) and in liquid feed inoculated with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus acidilactici); or Escherichia coli and combinations of LAB and E. coli. In the Control and the fermentations that included E. coli, lysine was rapidly metabolised, with ca. 90% degraded in 21 h. The production of cadaverine accounted for ca. half of the lysine lost. There was no loss of lysine in the LAB fermentations and no cadaverine was produced. Combining E. coli and LAB resulted in a loss of ca. 20% lysine in the first 7 h with no further metabolism thereafter. Cadaverine produced in these fermentations accounted for all of the lysine lost. The rate of lysine metabolism was inhibited by the increase in lactic acid present in the fermentations. Fermenting E. coli and LAB with the addition of 50 mM lactic acid at 0 h resulted in the lysine levels remaining unaltered throughout the fermentation period. These results imply that the loss of lysine from fermented liquid pig diets is due to the metabolism of lysine by E. coli before they are eliminated from the diet by the increasing acidity resulting from LAB fermentation.

Fifty-six samples of wheat and 44 samples of barley were taken, at harvest, from locations across the UK. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts were enumerated before the samples were ground. Following grinding, triplicate 30-g samples of each cereal were mixed with sterile distilled water and incubated at 30, 35 or 40 °C. Samples were taken immediately after mixing and at 24-h intervals for analysis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) and ethanol by isocratic ion-exclusion liquid chromatography. The number of LAB and yeasts present in samples ranged from 0 to 5.0 (mean 2.25 ± 1.31) and 3.30 to 6.25 (mean 4.96 ± 0.74) log10 colony-forming units (cfu) ml−1 respectively. At 30 °C the mean concentrations (mmol l−1) of SCFAs and ethanol were, lactic acid 59.6 ± 40.0 (range 0.14–134.9), acetic acid 23.2 ± 11.1 (range 2.9–51.4), butyric acid 17.2 ± 16.8 (range 0.0–62.2) and ethanol 15.0 ± 9.0 (range 4.6–53.7) respectively. After fermentation for 24 h only 9 of 300 fermentations produced more than 75 mmol l−1 lactic acid, which has previously been demonstrated to prevent the growth of Salmonella in liquid pig feed. Fermenting at 35 or 40 °C had no effect on lactic acid concentration but significantly (p < 0.001) increased the concentrations of acetic and butyric acids and ethanol. These results indicate that natural fermentation cannot be relied upon to produce levels of SCFAs that will prevent the proliferation of enteropathogens. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry

A method is described for the simultaneous monitoring of four short chain fatty acids (SCFA) (lactic, acetic, propionic and butyric acid), two mono-saccarides (fructose and glucose) and ethanol in liquid feed for pigs and liquid feed fermented with lactic acid bacteria. The method involves a simple extraction technique, with average recoveries between 83 and 98%. Determination and quantification of each compound was achieved by isocratic, ion exclusion chromatography (IEC), at room temperature. Detection was by refractive index.

Aims: The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of copper ions on the survival of Salmonella typhimurium DT104:30 in acidified liquid food substrates. Methods and Results: The decimal reduction time (Dvalue) of Salm. typhimurium DT104:30 was determined in acidified liquid pig feed (LPF) and skimmed milk (SM) containing a range of copper concentrations (0–50 ppm). As copper concentration increased, the death rate of Salm. typhimurium DT104:30 increased. In LPF acidified with 150 mmol l−1 lactic acid the presence of 50 ppm copper resulted in a 10-fold increase in the death rate. Conclusions: The presence of copper salts in acidic liquid food substrates significantly increases the death rate of Salm. typhimurium DT104:30. Significance and Impact of the Study: This finding could influence policy on levels of copper in pig feed.

Two studies were conducted to investigate the effect of temperature on the fate of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar typhimurium DT104:30 in fermented liquid pig feed. These were (1) by co-inoculation of feed with S. typhimurium DT104:30 and Pediococcus pentosaceus, as the fermenting organism, and (2) by fermenting feed for 48, 72 or 96 h prior to inoculation with S. typhimurium DT104:30. In co-inoculated feed incubated at 20 degrees C, S. typhimurium DT104:30 persisted for at least 72 h. In contrast, in feed incubated at 30 degrees C, no S. typhimurium DT104:30 were detectable 48 h after inoculation. In prefermented feed, S. typhimurium DT104:30 died four to five times faster in feed maintained at 30 degrees C (D(value) 34-45 min) compared with feed maintained at 20 degrees C (D(value) 137-250 min). This was not entirely due to differences in lactic acid concentration as feed fermented for 72 or 96 h at 20 degrees C and feed fermented for 48 h at 30 degrees C contained similar concentrations of lactic acid (160-170 mM). Low numbers of S. typhimurium DT104:30 were still detectable in fermented feed 24 h after inoculation at 20 degrees C. In contrast, none were detectable 6-7 h after inoculation at 30 degrees C. The results of these studies indicate that it would be advisable for pig producers to control the temperature of liquid feed tanks to reduce the risk of Salmonella contamination.

The effect of feeding newly weaned pigs acidified liquid diets was investigated. The control diet was acidified to about pH 4 with lactic acid (LA). A second diet of the same formulation was acidified to about pH 4 by fermentation with Pediococcus acidilactici (PA). Forty-eight weaner pigs (weight 7 kg±1 kg, age 24±4 days) were allocated to the two dietary treatments according to a randomised block design and fed ad libitum for 28 days. Food intake, daily gain and water intake were recorded, and a microbial assessment of the liquid diet was conducted. Reducing pH

Gut mucosal macrophages play a pivotal role in driving mucosal immune responses, resulting in either activation of inflammatory immune responses to pathogenic challenge or tolerance to beneficial luminal contents such as food and commensal bacteria. Macrophage responses elicited are dependent on tissue environment and the resulting cell subset, where homeostatic macrophages resemble the M2 macrophage subset and inflammatory macrophages resemble M1s. Probiotics can modulate macrophage function with outcome dependent on subset present. Using a THP-1 monocyte cell line-derived model of CD14high/low M1 and M2 macrophages, the aim of this study was to investigate the immunomodulatory effects of a panel of heat-killed probiotic bacteria and their secreted proteins on the subset-specific inflammatory marker profile of TNFα, IL-6 and NFκB. M1 and M2 cells were generated by differentiation of monocyte stable transfectants for high and low CD14 expression with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and vitamin D3, respectively, where the resulting CD14lo M2 and CD14hi M1s mimicked homeostatic and inflammatory mucosal macrophages. Subsets were stimulated by enteropathic lipopolysaccharides in the presence or absence of heat-killed (HK) or secreted proteins (SP) from a panel of probiotic bacteria. Regulation of cytokine expression was measured by ELISA and NFκB activity by reporter assay. HK probiotics suppress CD14lo and augment CD14hi M1 and M2 production of TNFα whereas SPs augmented CD14hi M1 TNFα and were generally suppressive in the other subtypes. M2 macrophage IL-6 production was suppressed by both HK and SPs and differentially regulated in CD14lo and CD14hi M1s. NFκB activation failed to parallel the regulatory profiles for TNFα and IL-6 which is suggestive of probiotic bacteria exerting their regulatory effects on these cytokines in an NFκB-independent manner. In conclusion, HK and SP probiotics differentially regulate macrophage cytokines and NFκB activation in a subset-dependent manner and suggest a cautionary approach to probiotic treatment of mucosal inflammation.

The effect of different maize variety and bacteria starter culture on maize fermentation process was evaluated. Eleven varieties of maize were subjected to fermentation both naturally and in the presence of bacteria starter culture (bactocell). One variety was further fermented with different bacteria starter cultures. The cultures used were; Pediococcus acidilactici (Bactocell), Lactobacilli amylophillus, L. reuteri, L. caesi and L. plantarum. The pH levels, amount of lactic acid produced and its effect on pathogenic E. coli were determined for all the fermented products. The results showed that there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the amount of lactic acid produced by the different varieties of maize. Furthermore, maize fermented with bactocell had a pH of 3.59 – 3.84 after 24 h and this was significantly lower than the naturally fermented maize (pH 4.53 – 4.83). The reduction in pH was attributed to the production of lactic acid which is a by-product of the fermentation process. L. plantarum fermented maize produced the highest amount of lactic acid (81.81mM) and also produced a higher inhibition in the growth of E. coli compared to the other bacteria starter cultures tested. The maize variety did not affect their fermentation process but influenced the amount of lactic acid produced. Furthermore, maize fermented with bacteria starter cultures were faster than the natural process and resulted in increased lactic acid production.

Thirty-two Hermitage-Seaborough, Hybrid pigs, were allocated at 16 weeks of age to a ran- domized block design with four treatments and four replicates. Pigs were fed to scale (ca. 0.85 ad libitum) one of the four dietary treatments, namely; non-fermented liquid feed (NFLF) or liquid feed fermented for 24h at 30°C with either Lactobacillus salivarius (FLF-SAL), Pediococcus acidilactici (Bactocell™) (FLF-BAC), or a mixture of Pediococcus acidilactici, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactococcus lactis, and Lactobacillus plantarum (Stabisil™) (FLF-STAB). Treatment did not significant- ly affect average daily live weight gain or food conversion ratio. The coliform population in faecal samples from pigs fed FLF-SAL was significantly lower (1.44±0.422 log 10 CFU ml -1 ; P 100mMol) were needed to be bactericidal (Beal et al., 2002; Brooks, 2005). Unfortunately, natural fermentations have produced unpredictable results on commercial units. In a recent study (Beal et al., 2005), only 3% (9 of 300) of fermentations of wheat and barley produced more than 75 mmol lactic acid kg -1 after 24 h fermentation. Thus natu- ral fermentations, which rely on the indigenous flora present on grains, cannot be relied upon to produce bactericidal levels of lactic acid. More predictable fermentation can be achieved by inoculating liquid feed with lactic acid bac- teria (LAB) that produce lactic acid rapidly and have a high terminal lactic acid concentration. Beal, Niven and Brooks (unpublished data) have identified a number of LAB species capable of produc- ing 180-230 mmol kg -1

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of temperature on the survival of Salmonella and E. coli in fermented liquid pig feed (FLF). Liquid feed, fermented with Lactobacillus plantarum, was challenged with Salmonella or E. coli (six serovars of each) at 20, 30 or 37 C. Temperature significantly affected the survival of Salmonella and E. coli. In FLF containing ca 230 mmol L lactic acid the mean decimal reduction time (D) for Salmonella was reduced from 157 (±10) min at 20 C to 12 (±1.5) min at 30 C and 180 min at 20 C to 30 (±12.7) min at 30 oC and 21 (±6.2) min at 37 C. These studies suggest that successful elimination of potential pathogens from liquid feed can be achieved through fermentation with appropriate lactic acid bacteria and temperature control.

Consumption of poultry meat is associated with human Salmonella infections (Revolledo etal. 2006). One way to control the presence of these bacteria in broiler flocks is to make chickens less susceptible to colonisation. Fermented liquid feed may be a potential tool to reduce the Salmonella carriage in broiler chickens (Heres etal. 2003). Fermented liquid feed is a moistened feed with high numbers of lactobacilli (=109cfu/gr), high concentration of lactic acid (= 150mM) and a low pH (etal. 2003). In the present experiment, a strain identified as Lb. salivarius that has been isolated from chicken gut and has been selected for its probiotic and fermentation properties after a screening method, was assessed for its efficacy in reducing the shedding of Salmonellatyphimurium in poultry.

Low pH and high lactic acid concentration of fermented feed has been reported to be responsible for the antimicrobial activity of fermented feeds (Brooks et al., 2001). For example, to prevent the growth of Salmonella spp. in liquid feeds, a threshold lactic acid concentration of 75mM is required (Beal et al., 2002). Therefore, factors that are likely to affect the production of lactic acid during fermentation will have important implications for the ability of such feeds to withstand colonisation by pathogens. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of water quality on the fermentation pattern of sorghum and barley.

The large storage proteins of soya bean, glycinin and pconglycinin are relatively indigestible in their native state. Even when partially denatured by heat treatments these proteins may not be utilised fully by young pigs. Glycinin in particular has been implicated in causing immune hypersensitivity reactions that can lead to gut damage. Partial hydrolysis of these large proteins may increase their digestibility and improve the nutritional value of both raw and heat treated soya bean meals. The increased protein digestibility in humans of fermented soya foods compared with soya bean flour has been attributed to partial proteolysis by microbial proteases produced by the fermenting organisms. The objective of this study was to assess the proteolytic action of a microbial protease P#4 (Finnfeeds International Marlborough) on raw and autoclaved soya with a view to its inclusion into liquid diets for grower/finisher pigs.