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Functional and enterprising competencies were identified in the integrated entrepreneurial performance model and the paper highlights which key skills and which supportive skills should be included in entrepreneurial training models and programmes. Functional competencies depend on business management/general business and technical skills. Enterprising competencies depend on entrepreneurial and personal skills. A clear distinction is made between general management and entrepreneurial skills. A multi-sample of 570 start-up and established small and medium enterprises (SMEs) was used to determine whether there are statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of the importance and proficiency in these competencies. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to confirm the validity and reliability of the measuring instrument and several statistical tests, including t-tests and ANOVAs, were performed to test the hypotheses. Established SMEs considered functional competencies as being much more important than start-ups. This finding implies that start-up SMEs need to focus on the importance of functional competencies if they want to increase their chances of becoming established businesses. It was found that start-up, as well as established SMEs, consider enterprising competencies as important. The established group considered themselves very proficient in both the functional and enterprising competencies while the divergent was true for the start-up group.

The environment in which a business operates is not static. Intensifying global competition and rapid technological progress put presure on business to change. Better quality and service and lower costs are no longer enough to give a competitive advantage. Adaptability, flexibility, speed, aggressiveness and innovativeness are increasingly necessary. This can be achieved by entrepreneurial organisations. Through corporate entrepreneurship, big business can improve its profitability and competitive standing. This research aims to determine the characteristics of organisational strategy, structure and culture that foster corporate entrepreneurship in large and established companies. These characteristics were applied to an established organisation to evaluate to what extent its strategy, culture and structure would support entrepreneurial activities and initiatives. Data were collected through self-completion questionnaires and analysed by calculating Cronbach alpha values, t-test and ANOVA.

A generally accepted definition of an entrepreneur is an individual with the ability to realise a specific vision from virtually anything, a definite human creative action. A differentiating factor defining the true entrepreneur is represented by the entrepreneurial skills creativity and innovation. The fundamental skill to "create", therefore generating an idea and transforming it into a viable growth-oriented business, forms an unconditional and integrated necessity in entrepreneurship training programmes. Many researchers in this field emphasise the need for and the lack of training models regarding this intervention.Courses offered by training institutions focus on training the traditional manager and not the entrepreneur. A lack of skills training for growth-oriented business is also evident. A critical deficiency in models directly addressing the Creativity, Innovation and Opportunity-finding issues, as part of entrepreneurship training, creates a situation of minuscule differentiation between a business idea and an opportunity in a training context. It is furthermore apparent that a lack of tools, textbooks and approaches to cultivate creativity exists in the field. The latter generates stifling pedagogical paradigms in teaching business and entrepreneurship.This study demonstrates a new action-learning approach and model, developed to increase creative and innovative behaviour and actions of the entrepreneurship learner. Three purposive samples were used, on the basis of an experimental design. Ratio data were obtained by means of a reliable measuring instrument (Chronbach's alpha on an acceptable levell). ANOVA as well as a discriminant analysis indicated statistically significant differences between the various groups.This study illustrates that the proposed training methodology that was used enhances the level of creativity and innovation skills of the entrepreneurship learner on this programme. Recommendations regarding future research in this exciting field of study are addressed.

Purpose: The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that strategic entrepreneurial thinking is a unitary concept which should be viewed as a standalone construct. Design/Methodology/Approach: The concept strategic entrepreneurial thinking is modelled from an analysis of strategic thinking and entrepreneurial thinking from available literature. The strategic entrepreneurial mindset imperative is then emphasised and confirmed. Findings: This paper's finding is that there is no difference between strategic thinking and the entrepreneurial mindset. Instead, the composite strategic entrepreneurial mindset construct should be treated as a unitary construct. Practical implications : The importance for practitioners is that the paper integrates two constructs, strategic thinking and entrepreneurial thinking into a new concept, strategic entrepreneurial thinking. The paper shows how difficult it is to split this thinking and behaviour into separate strategic and entrepreneurial thought and action processes. Originality/Value: The paper explores the ''thinking'' aspect of the strategic entrepreneurial concept which prominent authors on the strategic entrepreneurship topic seem to have not focused on. The resultant strategic entrepreneurial mindset is modelled into a new stand alone concept on its own.

The concept of Precision farming is not new, and interest in the potential benefits gained momentum in the late eighties. The high cost of soil sampling and chemical and physical analysis by conventional laboratories has restricted the full implementation of this technique at the field level. Near infrared reflectance (NIR) could be a cost‐effective solution. Soil properties that have been calibrated include gravimetric soil water, clay content, buffer capacity, pH, electrical conductivity, titratable acidity, organic matter, mineralizable nitrogen, potential ammonia volatilization from urea, potential nitrification rate, and urease activity. A whole paradigm shift in philosophy is needed in soil testing to move away from the traditional approach of taking a perceived‐representative sample, in which all the spatial variation is lost, to using a combination of grid soil sampling at a sample intensity of 4 to 10 cores per ha and analysed separately using rapid but less accurate methods such as NIR.

Soil sampling by conventional methods as applied in the Republic of South Africa, provides average values. These are valuable for mapping to give an indication of general fertility. The time of sampling generally after the crop has been removed from the field is also not ideal. Values obtained vary markedly from values obtained during planting. In systems where fixed cultivation practices are followed (band placement of fertilisers and row crops) zones of concentration are created in the rootzone that have no resemblance to averages. Acid zones with general lower fertility that are created in this manner are permanent and where crops are subsequently planted in the same position, the intensity of the acidification is enhanced. In time this can cause plant growth in this zone to become impossible. Soil sampling as an aid in fertilisation programme planning requires that the spatial variation must be known. More regular sampling (annually) and possibly throughout the season, on a smaller area, that is representative and part of the system, will give the pattern of variation in the particular field. It must be stressed that acid soils require normal liming if the pH (H 2 O) is below 6. Acid zones in these soils formed by bandplacement of reduced nitrogen require much higher applications. The mixing of coarse amorphic lime with the fertilisers that are bandplaced can alleviate this. Possible advantages, for example, could be: effectiveness of fertilisers applied on low pH soils, is increased; chemical environment in the root zone is improved; stimulation of beneficial microflora; effectiveness of band applied herbicides may be improved; a strong tendency towards higher yields. No harmful effects were encountered in a study of these aspects. Unavailability of P due to the formation of less soluble Ca-phosphate as well as Zn-interactions are some of the theoretical possibilities, although none of these were encountered. Addition of coarse lime to fertilisers that are bandplaced, is a safe and affordable procedure.

AgriLASA (Agri Laboratory Association of Southern Africa) has 75 member laboratories participating in quality audits that service different sector's in Agriculture, Horticulture and Environmental needs. Most laboratories are fairly small and only render a limited service. In 1968 Government and the private sector agreed to rationalise and centralise laboratory services in SA. As frequently happens the ideal did not prevail and soon afterwards everyone reverted to doing their own thing. In 1996 the major role players in the private sector re‐evaluated their positions and as the trend to convert from Co‐operatives to Companies gathered momentum, pressure on laboratories to become self‐reliant increased. A complicating factor had always been that Government, to a large extent, subsidised analytical services in Agriculture. The first major amalgamation occurred with the combining of the laboratories of Northwest Co‐operative, Outspan International (Previous Citrus Exchange) and the in‐house feed labo...

ALASA is a non-profitable umbrella body for laboratories with agricultural relevance and was founded in 1993. Its mission is to promote the interests of member laboratories and to gain recognition for their services and to ensure the acceptable quality thereof. The main aims of ALASA are to establish and maintain standard analytical methods, promote the use of the standardized methods, rationalize methods, support and institute analytical quality assurance schemes and inter-calibration exercises and the promotion of accreditation of member laboratories. The main functions of ALASA are to liaison with interested parties, member laboratories and other organizations, to promote standardization and quality assurance, organization of suitable workshops, congresses and courses. ALASA is governed by its council consisting of a President, chairperson of the executive committee, secretary and treasurer. The elected chairperson and secretary of each sub-committee plus two additional members serve on the council. Currently the following sub disciplines are active: plants, soil and growth media, lime, fertilizer, feed, pesticide, water and wine. Sub-committees meet regularly to discuss and co-ordinate matters that concern the specific discipline and report back to the council. Problems which ALASA has encountered and which cause variation in analytical results are the incorrect application of methods, the use of different instrumentation and the use of non-standardized methods. Some of the main achievements of ALASA includes the compilation of standard analytical handbooks for soil (presently under revision), fertilizers and a combined book for plant and feed. Other achievements include the presentation of workshops where the correct methodologies for different methods, which cause reduced variation in the analytical results in the different control schemes, are discussed and explained.

Soil acidification under tropical and sub-tropical conditions is a well known phenomenon. Because of cost implications in practice it is important that the best available liming materials be used. Various methods have been employed to distinguish between the effectiveness of such materials, most based on the principle of calcium carbonate equivalent. Many of these use relatively strong acids for dissolution of lime, at concentrations far greater than ever actually occur in even the most acid soils. Because contact exchange between the acidified sites and the liming material is considered to be vital, a method in which a slightly acidified cation exchange resin is used was developed (the resin exchange method). This method has been used by several laboratories in South Africa that take part in the quality control scheme run by ALASA. Several problems were experienced in achieving reproducibility between laboratories, that were diagnosed as being due to variations in applications of the method and especially lack of discipline in using a standardized resin. This resulted in a number of independent investigations into reasons for this apparent lack of reproducibility. Reasons for this included inherent particle size distribution in the sub-samples of liming material, resin properties, water quality and electrode maintenance and calibration. Under standardized and controlled conditions the method proved to be eminently satisfactory. An alternative possibility that is being investigated is the use of an unbuffered acid topsoil to replace the resin. A bulk sample could be homogenized and subdivided to provide an adequate supply.

Although there have been various quality assurance schemes operative in South Africa for several years, efforts were largely fragmented and informal. Initially the Fertilizer Society of South Africa, together with representatives of Government departments, cooperatives, private laboratories, research councils, and universities met informally to discuss the analysis of materials of agricultural importance: soils, plant material, fertilizers, liming materials, animal feeds, and waters. The need for a more formal structure was long felt and it came to fruition with the formation of Agricultural Laboratory Association of Southern Africa (ALASA) in September 1993. Apart from a constitution, there is a central council comprising representatives of subcommittees representing the different disciplines. Although lots has yet to be put in place, it is confidently expected that this will go a long way to ensuring reliable analyses of materials of agricultural importance in Southern Africa.

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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to determine if the independent variables; location of an international assignment, the age of an expatriate, the duration of an assignment and the management level of an expatriate, influence the preparation, support and training that they require for an international assignment. Design/Methodology/Approach: This formal, empirical study was undertaken using an electronic questionnaire that was distributed to expatriates who were on an international assignment. Expatriates who were on an international assignment were thought to be in the best position to respond to their preparation, support and training needs. Findings: The research found that the preparation, support and training required by South African expatriates are not influenced by the location of an international assignment, the age of the expatriate, the duration of an international assignment or the management level of the expatriate. Implications: The findings highlight the fact that human resource managers of South African multinational enterprises should provide all their expatriates with the same preparation, support and training, as well as identifies five requirements that should be included in all South African expatriate policies.

A major issue in international human resource management is the failure of expatriates. The failure rate of expatriates has been reported to range anywhere between 10 and 80 percent, costing multinational enterprises (MNEs) between US$40 000 and US$1 million for each failed assignment. In order to address the problem it is recommended that MNEs provide sufficient preparation, support and training to not only the expatriate but also to their trailing spouses and children. This research has, however, proven that not only are South African MNEs not providing the preparation, support and training required by their expatriates, they are also falling short in the preparation, support and training provided to expatriate’s trailing spouses and children. The research does, however, provide guidelines on the preparation, support and training that can be offered to expatriates, their trailing spouses and children.

Purpose: This paper focuses on a critical analysis of the influence of start-up factors in small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures in Gauteng, a province in South Africa. Problem investigated: Owing to the low economic growth, high unemployment, and an unsatisfactory level of poverty in South Africa, entrepreneurship becomes a critical solution for the starting and developing of small businesses. Although the South African Government are constantly improving in eliminating barriers to potential start-ups, South Africa's TEA is not up to standard if it wants to sustain economic growth rates that will create wealth for everybody. Various factors influence and play a role in the establishment and operation of small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures. Design/methodology/approach: An ex-post facto, formal research design was used as respondents were requested to indicate on a four-point scale how important they deemed 37 items in a structured personal interview. A sample of 312 elements was included in the research. The data was analysed through a factor analysis and analysis of variance. Findings: Four factors were identified that influence the start-up of small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures. They are: personal management and involvement; role models; effective time management; and support from partners and advisors. It is very clear that there is a definite difference in the needs and factors influencing: women and male entrepreneurs; the age of entrepreneurs and the stage of the business in its life cycle. Value of research: By analysing the factors that influence start-up, it can make potential entrepreneurs aware of theimportance of considering these factors in the start-up and growth of their businesses. Conclusion: The findings of this research are in line with similar international research (Mazzarol et al., 1999 and Deakins & Freel, 2003) on various aspects influencing the start-up of businesses. Although a lot of support, education and training are given in South Africa, policy makers and educational institutions should take note of the various differences in needs and make provision in their support and training for these differences. It is also recommended that existing small business owners and entrepreneurs must create their own support structure specifically when they move from the start-up stage to the new firm stage, as this is a stage where support and advice is much needed.

The effect of hexavalent chromium at different pH values on the carbohydrate metabolism of Tilapia sparrmanii was investigated. The indicator organisms were exposed to Cr(V1) for short and long-term exposures, after which the blood glucose levels and activities of pyruvate kinase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase were determined. It was found that short-term exposures of Cr(V1) at an acidic medium caused an increase in energy production and glucose concentrations. Long­ term exposures led to exhaustion of carbohydrate reserves, which necessitated the formation of additional energy compounds.

The effect of hexavalent chromium at different pH values on the carbohydrate metabolism of Tilapia sparrmanii was investigated. The indicator organisms were exposed to Cr(V1) for short and long-term exposures, after which the blood glucose levels and activities of pyruvate kinase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase were determined. It was found that short-term exposures of Cr(V1) at an acidic medium caused an increase in energy production and glucose concentrations. Long­ term exposures led to exhaustion of carbohydrate reserves, which necessitated the formation of additional energy compounds.

An inter‐laboratory study was conducted to determine the variability of three aglime analysis methods. The methods evaluated were; total Ca and Mg analysis, neutralization of 0,5 mol dm‐3 HCl and a resin suspension method. It was found that the resin suspension method not only significantly gave the best reproducibility between laboratories, but it proved to be the most discriminatory between samples, as it is sensitive to all aspects involved, such as fineness, chemical purity and other physical properties.