Search

The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of low scores in a diverse Latin American population for two neuropsychological commonly used tests to evaluate executive functions and to compare the number of low scores obtained using normative data from a Spanish-speaking population from Latin America versus an English-speaking population from U.S.A. Healthy adults (N = 5402) were administered the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Stroop Color-Word. Low scores on measures of executive functioning are common. Clinicians working with Spanish-speaking adults should take into account the higher probability of low scores on these measures to reduce false-positive diagnoses of cognitive deficits in an individual.

This study is part of a larger project to generate norms for letter verbal fluency test (VFT) in 3,284 children from nine Latin American countries. The letter VFT (letters M, R, and P) was administered and multiple linear regressions, including age, age2, MPE (mean parental education), MPE2, sex, and interactions were used as predictors. Results showed significant differences across countries for all scores. Age affected scores linearly except for Ecuador (P-letter), in which a quadratic effect was found. Scores increased linearly as a function of MPE, with the exception of Mexico (R-letter), in which a quadratic effect was found. Age by MPE (M- and P-letters), and age by MPE2 (R-letter) interactions were found in Mexico. Sex had an impact on letter R in Cuba, and letter P in Ecuador and Paraguay. Age2 by sex interaction was found in Ecuador (P-letter). These norms will be useful for clinical neuropsychologists in these countries to evaluate their patients’ verbal fluency.

Objective To generate normative data for the phonological and semantic verbal fluency tests (VFT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. Method The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the VFT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Scores for letters F, A, S, and animals and fruit categories were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. Results The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile (animals), Cuba (A letter, fruits), Ecuador (animals, fruits), Honduras (F letter), Mexico (animals, fruits), Peru (fruits), and Spain (S letters, animals, fruits). Models showed an effect for MLPE in Chile (A letters, animals, fruits), Ecuador (S letter, animals, fruits), Guatelama (F, S letter, animals), Honduras (animals), Mexico (F, A, S letters, animals, fruits), Puerto Rico (A, letters, animals), and Spain (all scores). Sex scores were found significant in Chile (animals), Ecuador (A letter, fruits), Mexico (F letter, fruits), Paraguay (F, A, S letters, fruits), Puerto Rico (F letter, animals, fruits), and Spain (F letter, fruits). Conclusions This is the largest multi-national Spanish speaking-pediatric normative study in the world, and as such it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the phonological and semantic VFT in pediatric populations.

Objective To generate normative data on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the SDMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained 29-56% of the variance in SDMT scores. Although there were gender differences on the SDMT in Mexico, Honduras, Paraguay, and Guatemala, none of the four countries had an effect size greater than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in Latin America to create norms for the SDMT; this study will have an impact on the future practice of neuropsychology throughout the global region.

Objective To generate normative data on the Stroop Test across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the Stroop Test, as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained 14-36% of the variance in Stroop Word scores, 12-41% of the variance in the Stoop Color, 14-36% of the variance in the Stroop Word-Color scores, and 4-15% of variance in Stroop Interference scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women on the Stroop test, none of the countries had an effect size larger than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in Latin America to create norms for the Stoop Test in a Spanish-Speaking sample. This study will therefore have important implications for the future of neuropsychology research and practice throughout the region.

Objective To generate normative data on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test- Revised (HVLT-R) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the HVLT-R as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained 17- 45% of the variance in HVLT-R scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women in Guatemala on the HVLT-R, it was a small effect size. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions The results from this study will have a substantial impact on the practice of neuropsychology in Latin America, as this is the first normative multicenter study to develop norms for the HVLT-R in this region.

Objective To generate normative data on the Modified Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the M-WCST as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained between 2-33% of the variance in M-WCST scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women from seven different countries on the M-WCST, the effect sizes were small. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in in Latin America aiming to create norms for the M-WCST; this study will have important implications for the future of neuropsychology in the region.

Objective To generate normative data on the Boston Naming Test (BNT) across 10 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,779 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the BNT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained between 3-32% of the variance in BNT scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women for Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Guatemala, and Bolivia on the BNT, none of the six countries had an effect size larger than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in Latin America to generate norms for the BNT; this study will have substantial repercussions for the practice of neuropsychology throughout the global region.

An increase in the use of Computer-Based Neuropsychological Assessment tools (CBNA) has approached clinical neuropsychology appliance. In clinical diagnosis practice it is strongly needed to acquire precise data which often presents a challenge for clinicians and neuroscientists. Procedures for validation of methods in clinical neuropsychology are reliable when results between clinical and control samples are expected and observed different, by using paper-based and computer-based methods. The aim of the present study is to describe the validation procedures of a CBNA tool in a sample of control and clinical participants. The method consisted in comparing 35 control adolescents with 33 clinically referred pairs. A CBNA composed by two neuropsychological assessment tests for measuring effect of emotions on executive functions, was administered to each participant. Results showed differences between groups, observed in performance over the tasks. It was concluded that CBNA gives accurately results that otherwise could not be acquired by conventional paper-based methods, reducing errors of tests administration and application costs, as well as conserving reliability.

Objective To generate normative data for the Learning and Verbal Memory Test (TAMV-I) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. Method The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TAMV-I as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Free recall, memory delay and recognition scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. Results The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in all countries except Cuba, and Puerto Rico for free recall score; a significant effect for memory delay score in all countries except Cuba and Puerto Rico; and a significant effect for recognition score in in all countries except Guatemala, Honduras, and Puerto Rico. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Chile (free recall), Honduras (free recall), Mexico (free recall), Puerto Rico (free recall, memory delay, and recognition), and Spain (free recall and memory delay). Sex affected free recall score for Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Spain, memory delay score for all countries except Chile, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico, and recognition score for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain, with girls scoring higher than boys. Conclusions This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the TAMV-I with pediatric populations.

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the M-WCST as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Number of categories, perseverative errors, and total error scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that the number of categories correct increased and total number of perseverative errors and total number of errors decrease linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, and Spain for numbers of categories; a significant effect for number of perseverative errors in Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Spain; and a significant effect for number of total errors in Chile, Cuba, Peru, and Spain. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Cuba (total errors), Ecuador (categories and total errors), Mexico (all scores), Paraguay (perseverative errors and total error), and Spain (categories and total errors). Sex affected number of total errors for Ecuador. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the M-WCST with pediatric populations.

Objective To generate normative data for the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. Method The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the SDMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. SDMT scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. Results The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age in all countries, such that score increased linearly as a function of age. In addition, age2 had a significant effect in all countries, except in Honduras and Puerto Rico. Models indicated that children whose parent(s) had a MLPE >12 years of education obtained higher score compared to children whose parent(s) had a MLPE ≤12 years for Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected SDMT score for Paraguay and Spain. Conclusions This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate interpretation of the SDMT with pediatric populations.

Objective To generate normative data on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the ROCF as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained 7-34% of the variance in ROCF copy scores and 21-41% of the variance in immediate recall scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women on ROCF copy and immediate recall scores, none of the countries had an effect size larger than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions The present study is the first to create norms for the ROCF in Latin America. As a result, this study will have important implications for the formation and practice of neuropsychology in this region.

Objective To generate normative data on the Brief Test of Attention (BTA) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, Honduras, Chile, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Bolivia. Each subject was administered the BTA as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models explained between 11-41% of the variance in BTA scores. Although men had higher scores on the BTA in Honduras, there were no other significant gender differences, and this one effect size was small. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in Latin America to create norms for the BTA; this study will have an impact on the future practice of neuropsychology throughout Latin America.

Objective To generate normative data on the Trail Making Test (TMT) across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, Honduras, Chile, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Bolivia. Each subject was administered the TMT as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models for the TMT-A explained 23- 50% of the variance, and the final multiple linear models for the TMT-B explained 22- 49% of the variance. Although there were gender differences on the TMT in Mexico, Peru, Paraguay, and Honduras, only Honduras had an effect size greater than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were generated for the Trail Making Test-A, but not B, in this country. Conclusions The present study is the first to create norms for the TMT in Latin America. As a result, this study will have important implications for the practice of neuropsychology in the future.

Objective To generate normative data for the Verbal Fluency Tests across 11 countries in Latin America, with country-specific adjustments for gender, age, and education, where appropriate. Method The sample consisted of 3,977 healthy adults who were recruited from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and, Puerto Rico. Each subject was administered the Verbal Fluency Test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. A standardized five-step statistical procedure was used to generate the norms. Results The final multiple linear regression models for the letter F explained 8-30% of the variance, 7-32% for letter A, 8-32% for the letter S, and 16-43% for the animal category in Verbal Fluency Test scores. Although t-tests showed significant differences between men and women on the Verbal Fluency Test, they did not have an effect size larger than 0.3. As a result, gender-adjusted norms were not generated. Conclusions This is the first normative multicenter study conducted in Latin America aiming to create norms for the Verbal Fluency Test; this study will have important outcomes for the future of neuropsychology in the region.