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Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) therapy is a promising approach for treating inflammatory diseases due to their immunosuppressive and tissue repair characteristics. However, allogenic transplantation of MSCs induces thrombotic complications in some patients which limits its potential for clinical translation. To address this challenge, we have exploited the bioactivity of heparin, a well-known anticoagulant and immunosuppressive polysaccharide that is widely used in clinics. We have developed a smart layer-by-layer (LbL) coating strategy using gelatin and heparin polymers exploiting their overall positive and negative charges that enabled efficient complexation with the MSCs' glycocalyx. The stable coating of MSCs suppressed complement attack and mitigated thrombotic activation as demonstrated in human whole blood. Gratifyingly, the MSC coating retained its immunosuppressive properties and differentiation potential when exposed to inflammatory conditions and differentiation factors. We believe the simple coating procedure of MSCs will increase allogenic tolerance and circumvent the major challenge of MSCs transplantation. publishedVersion

Organoids can shed light on the dynamic interplay between complex tissues and rare cell types within a controlled microenvironment. Here, we develop gut organoid cocultures with type-1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) to dissect the impact of their accumulation in inflamed intestines. We demonstrate that murine and human ILC1 secrete transforming growth factor β1, driving expansion of CD44v6 + epithelial crypts. ILC1 additionally express MMP9 and drive gene signatures indicative of extracellular matrix remodelling. We therefore encapsulated human epithelial–mesenchymal intestinal organoids in MMP-sensitive, synthetic hydrogels designed to form efficient networks at low polymer concentrations. Harnessing this defined system, we demonstrate that ILC1 drive matrix softening and stiffening, which we suggest occurs through balanced matrix degradation and deposition. Our platform enabled us to elucidate previously undescribed interactions between ILC1 and their microenvironment, which suggest that they may exacerbate fibrosis and tumour growth when enriched in inflamed patient tissues.

Nanoclays have generated interest in biomaterial design for their ability to enhance the mechanics of polymeric materials and impart biological function. As well as their utility as physical cross-linkers, clays have been explored for sustained localization of biomolecules to promote in vivo tissue regeneration. To date, both biomolecule-clay and polymer-clay nanocomposite strategies have utilised the negatively charged clay particle surface. As such, biomolecule-clay and polymer-clay interactions are set in competition, potentially limiting the functional enhancements achieved. Here, we apply specific bisphosphonate interactions with the positively charged clay particle edge to develop self-assembling hydrogels and functionalized clay nanoparticles with preserved surface exchange capacity. Low concentrations of nanoclay are applied to cross-link hyaluronic acid polymers derivatised with a pendant bisphosphonate to generate hydrogels with enhanced mechanical properties and preserved protein binding able to sustain, for over six weeks in vivo, the localized activity of the clinically licensed growth factor BMP-2., Nanoclays have been used in composites and for drug delivery but have suffered from a trade-off in properties when used for both. Here the authors report on the use of bisphosphonate interactions with nanoclay edges to made drug loaded composites without compromising materials properties or drug loading.

Designing strategies to deliver functional proteins at physiologically relevant concentrations using chemically cross-linked biocompatible hydrogels is a major field of research. However, the impact of cross-linking chemistry on the encapsulated protein bioactivity is rarely studied. Here we examine the two well-known cross-linking reactions namely; hydrazone cross-linking chemistry and thiol-Michael addition reaction to form hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels. As a therapeutic protein, we employed recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) for this study. Incubation of rhBMP-2 with HA functionalized with a thiol diminished phosphorylation of Smad 1/5/8, a signal transducer for osteogenic differntiation, whereas an aldehyde functionalized HA had no effect. This indicates that thiol functionalized polymers indeed has an impact on protein function. To validate this result in an

In severe malformations with a lack of native tissues, treatment options are limited. We aimed at expanding tissue in vivo using the body as a bioreactor and developing a sustainable single-staged procedure for autologous tissue reconstruction in malformation surgery. Autologous micro-epithelium from skin was integrated with plastically compressed collagen and a degradable knitted fabric mesh. Sixty-three scaffolds were implanted in nine rats for histological and mechanical analyses, up to 4 weeks after transplantation. Tissue integration, cell expansion, proliferation, inflammation, strength, and elasticity were evaluated over time in vivo and validated in vitro in a bladder wound healing model. After 5 days in vivo, we observed keratinocyte proliferation on top of the transplant, remodeling of the collagen, and neovascularization within the transplant. At 4 weeks, all transplants were fully integrated with the surrounding tissue. Tensile strength and elasticity were retained during the whole study period. In the in vitro models, a multilayered epithelium covered the defect after 4 weeks. Autologous micro-epithelial transplants allowed for cell expansion and reorganization in vivo without conventional pre-operative in vitro cell propagation. The method was easy to perform and did not require handling outside the operating theater.

The disulfide bond plays a crucial role in protein biology and has been exploited by scientists to develop antibody-drug conjugates, sensors, and for the immobilization other biomolecules to materials surfaces. In spite of its versatile use, the disulfide chemistry suffers from some inevitable limitations such as the need for basic conditions (pH > 8.5), strong oxidants, and long reaction times. We demonstrate here that thiol-substrates containing electron-withdrawing groups at the β-position influence the deprotonation of the thiol group, which is the key reaction intermediate in the formation of disulfide bonds. Evaluation of reaction kinetics using small molecule substrate such as l-cysteine indicated disulfide formation at a 2.8-fold higher ( k1 = 5.04 × 10-4 min-1) reaction rate as compared to the conventional thiol substrate, namely 3-mercaptopropionic acid ( k1 = 1.80 × 10-4 min-1) at physiological pH (pH 7.4). Interestingly, the same effect could not be observed when N-acetyl-l-cysteine substrate ( k1 = 0.51 × 10-4 min-1) was used. We further grafted such thiol-containing molecules (cysteine, N-acetyl-cysteine, and 3-mercaptopropionic acid) to a biopolymer namely hyaluronic acid (HA) and determined the p Ka value of different thiol groups by spectrophotometric analysis. The electron-withdrawing group at the β-position reduced the p Ka of the thiol group to 7.0 for HA-cysteine (HA-Cys); 7.4 for N-acetyl cysteine (HA-ActCys); and 8.1 for HA-thiol (HA-SH) derivatives, respectively. These experiments further confirmed that the concentration of thiolate (R-S-) ions could be increased with the presence of electron-withdrawing groups, which could facilitate disulfide cross-linked hydrogel formation at physiological pH. Indeed, HA grafted with cysteine or N-acetyl groups formed hydrogels within 3.5 min or 10 h, respectively, at pH 7.4. After completion of cross-linking reaction, both gels demonstrated a storage modulus G' ≈ 3300-3500 Pa, which indicated comparable levels of cross-linking. The HA-SH gel, on the other hand, did not form any gel at pH 7.4 even after 24 h. Finally, we demonstrated that the newly prepared hydrogels exhibited excellent hydrolytic stability but can be degraded by cell-directed processes (enzymatic and reductive degradation). We believe our study provides a valuable insight on the factors governing the disulfide formation and our results are useful to develop strategies that would facilitate generation of stable thiol functionalized biomolecules or promote fast thiol oxidation according to the biomedical needs.

Acrylic bone cements modified with linoleic acid are a promising low-modulus alternative to traditional high-modulus bone cements. However, several key properties remain unexplored, including the effect of autoclave sterilization and the potential use of low-modulus cements in other applications than vertebral augmentation. In this work, we evaluate the effect of sterilization on the structure and stability of linoleic acid, as well as in the handling properties, glass transition temperature, mechanical properties, and screw augmentation potential of low-modulus cement containing the fatty acid. Neither 1H NMR nor SFC-MS/MS analysis showed any detectable differences in autoclaved linoleic acid compared to fresh one. The peak polymerization temperature of the low-modulus cement was much lower (28&ndash, 30 &deg, C) than that of the high-modulus cement (67 &deg, C), whereas the setting time remained comparable (20&ndash, 25 min). The Tg of the low-modulus cement was lower (75&ndash, 78 &deg, C) than that of the high-stiffness cement (103 &deg, C). It was shown that sterilization of linoleic acid by autoclaving did not significantly affect the functional properties of low-modulus PMMA bone cement, making the component suitable for sterile production. Ultimately, the low-modulus cement exhibited handling and mechanical properties that more closely match those of osteoporotic vertebral bone with a screw holding capacity of under 2000 N, making it a promising alternative for use in combination with orthopedic hardware in applications where high-stiffness augmentation materials can result in undesired effects.

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) evoke great excitement for treating different human diseases due to their ability to home inflamed tissues, suppress inflammation, and promote tissue regeneration. Despite great promises, clinical trial results are disappointing as allotransplantation of MSCs trigger thrombotic activity and are damaged by the complement system, compromising their survival and function. To overcome this, a new strategy is presented by the silencing of tissue factor (TF), a transmembrane protein that mediates procoagulant activity. Novel Pluronic-based micelles are designed with the pendant pyridyl disulfide group, which are used to conjugate TF-targeting siRNA by the thiol-exchange reaction. This nanocarrier design effectively delivered the payload to MSCs resulting in ∼72% TF knockdown (KD) without significant cytotoxicity. Hematological evaluation of MSCs and TF-KD MSCs in an ex vivo human whole blood model revealed a significant reduction in an instant-blood-mediated-inflammatory reaction as evidenced by reduced platelet aggregation (93% of free platelets in the TF-KD group, compared to 22% in untreated bone marrow-derived MSCs) and thrombin-antithrombin complex formation. Effective TF silencing induced higher MSC differentiation in osteogenic and adipogenic media and showed stronger paracrine suppression of proinflammatory cytokines in macrophages and higher stimulation in the presence of endotoxins. Thus, TF silencing can produce functional cells with higher fidelity, efficacy, and functions. publishedVersion

There is an unmet need to develop strategies that allow site-specific delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNA) without any associated toxicity. To address this challenge, we have developed a novel siRNA delivery platform using chemically modified pluronic F108 as an amphiphilic polymer with a releasable bioactive disulfide functionality. The micelles exhibited thermoresponsive properties and showed a hydrodynamic size of similar to 291 nm in DLS and similar to 200-250 nm in SEM at 37 degrees C. The grafting of free disulfide pyridyl groups enhanced the transfection efficiency and was successfully demonstrated in human colon carcinoma (HCT116; 88%) and glioma cell lines (U87; 90%), non-cancerous human dermal fibroblast (HDF; 90%) cells as well as in mouse embryonic stem (mES; 54%) cells. To demonstrate the versatility of our modular nanocarrier design, we conjugated the MDGI receptor targeting COOP peptide on the particle surface that allowed the targeted delivery of the cargo molecules to human patent-derived primary BT-13 gliospheres. Transfection experiments with this design resulted in similar to 65% silencing of STAT3 mRNA in BT-13 gliospheres, while only similar to 20% of gene silencing was observed in the absence of the peptide. We believe that our delivery method solves current problems related to the targeted delivery of RNAi drugs for potential in vivo applications.

Organoids can shed light on the dynamic interplay between complex tissues and rare cell types within a controlled microenvironment. Here, we developed gut organoid co-cultures with type-1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1) to dissect the impact of their accumulation in inflamed intestines. We demonstrate for the first time that murine and human ILC1 secrete TGFβ1, driving expansion of CD44v6+ epithelial crypts. ILC1 additionally express MMP9 and drive gene signatures indicative of extracellular matrix remodelling. We therefore encapsulated human epithelial-mesenchymal intestinal organoids in MMP-sensitive, synthetic hydrogels designed to form efficient networks at low polymer concentrations. Harnessing this defined system, we demonstrate that ILC1 drive matrix softening and stiffening, which we suggest occurs through balanced matrix degradation and deposition. Our platform enabled us to elucidate previously undescribed interactions between ILC1 and their microenvironment, which suggest that they may exacerbate fibrosis and tumour growth when enriched in inflamed patient tissues.

Statins are currently the most prescribed hypercholesterolemia-lowering drugs worldwide, with estimated usage approaching one-sixth of the population. However, statins are known to cause pleiotropic skeletal myopathies in 1.5% to 10% of patients and the mechanisms by which statins induce this response, are not fully understood. In this study, a 3D collagen-based tissue-engineered skeletal muscle construct is utilised as a screening platform to test the efficacy and toxicity of a new delivery system. A hyaluronic acid derived nanoparticle loaded with simvastatin (HA-SIM-NPs) is designed and the effect of free simvastatin and HA-SIM-NPs on cellular, molecular and tissue response is investigated. Morphological ablation of myo-tubes and lack of de novo myotube formation (regeneration) was evident at the highest concentrations (333.33 µM), independent of delivery vehicle (SIM or HA-SIM-NP). A dose-dependent disruption of the cytoskeleton, reductions in metabolic activity and tissue engineered (TE) construct tissue relaxation was evident in the free drug condition (SIM, 3.33 µM and 33.33 nM). However, most of these changes were ameliorated when SIM was delivered via HA-SIM-NPs. Significantly, homogeneous expressions of MMP2, MMP9, and myogenin in HA-SIM-NPs outlined enhanced regenerative responses compared to SIM. Together, these results outline statin delivery via HA-SIM-NP as an effective delivery mechanism to inhibit deleterious myotoxic side-effects. publishedVersion

Monitoring hydrogel degradation in real time using noninvasive imaging techniques is of great interest for designing a scaffold in tissue engineering. We report the preparation of gadolinium (Gd)-labeled and injectable hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels that can be visualized using T

Synthetic scaffolds that possess an intrinsic capability to protect and sequester sensitive growth factors is a primary requisite for developing successful tissue engineering strategies. Growth factors such as recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) is highly susceptible to premature degradation and to provide a meaningful clinical outcome require high doses that can cause serious side effects. We discovered a unique strategy to stabilize and sequester rhBMP-2 by enhancing its molecular interactions with hyaluronic acid (HA), an extracellular matrix (ECM) component. We found that by tuning the initial protonation state of carboxylic acid residues of HA in a covalently crosslinked hydrogel modulate BMP-2 release at physiological pH by minimizing the electrostatic repulsion and maximizing the Van der Waals interactions. At neutral pH, BMP-2 release is primarily governed by Fickian diffusion, whereas at acidic pH both diffusion and electrostatic interactions between HA and BMP-2 become important as confirmed by molecular dynamics simulations. Our results were also validated in an in vivo rat ectopic model with rhBMP-2 loaded hydrogels, which demonstrated superior bone formation with acidic hydrogel as compared to the neutral counterpart. We believe this study provides new insight on growth factor stabilization and highlights the therapeutic potential of engineered matrices for rhBMP-2 delivery and may help to curtail the adverse side effects associated with the high dose of the growth factor. De två första författarna delar förstaförfattarskapet.

The urinary bladder is a complex organ with the primary functions of storing urine under low and stable pressure and micturition. Many clinical conditions can cause poor bladder compliance, reduced capacity, and incontinence, requiring bladder augmentation or use of regenerative techniques and scaffolds. To replicate an organ that is under frequent mechanical loading and unloading, special attention towards fulfilling its biomechanical requirements is necessary. Several biological and synthetic scaffolds are available, with various characteristics that qualify them for use in bladder regeneration in vitro and in vivo, including in the treatment of clinical conditions. The biomechanical properties of the native bladder can be investigated using a range of mechanical tests for standardized assessments, as well as mathematical and computational bladder biomechanics. Despite a large body of research into tissue engineering of the bladder wall, some features of the native bladder and the scaffolds used to mimic it need further elucidation. Collection of comparable reference data from different animal models would be a helpful tool for researchers and will enable comparison of different scaffolds in order to optimize characteristics before entering preclinical and clinical trials.

The design of constructs for tubular tissue engineering is challenging. Most biomaterials need to be reinforced with supporting structures such as knittings, meshes or electrospun material to comply with the mechanical demands of native tissues. In this study, coupled helical coils (CHCs) were manufactured to mimic collagen fiber orientation as found in nature. Monofilaments of different commercially available biodegradable polymers were wound and subsequently fused, resulting in right-handed and left-handed polymer helices fused together in joints where the filaments cross. CHCs of different polymer composition were tested to determine the tensile strength, strain recovery, hysteresis, compressive strength and degradation of CHCs of different composition. Subsequently, seamless and stable hybrid constructs consisting of PDSII (R) USP 2-0 CHCs embedded in porous collagen type I were produced. Compared to collagen alone, this hybrid showed superior strain recovery (93.5 +/- 0.9% vs 71.1 +/- 12.6% in longitudinal direction; 87.1 +/- 6.6% vs 57.2 +/- 4.6% in circumferential direction) and hysteresis (18.9 +/- 2.7% vs 51.1 +/- 12.0% in longitudinal direction; 11.5 +/- 4.6% vs 46.3 +/- 6.3% in circumferential direction). Furthermore, this hybrid construct showed an improved Young's modulus in both longitudinal (0.5 +/- 0.1 MPa vs 0.2 +/- 0.1 MPa; 2.5-fold) and circumferential (1.65 +/- 0.07 MPa vs (2.9 +/- 0.3) x 10(-2) MPa; 57-fold) direction, respectively, compared to templates created from collagen alone. Moreover, hybrid template characteristics could be modified by changing the CHC composition and CHCs were produced showing a mechanical behavior similar to the native ureter. CHC-enforced templates, which are easily tunable to meet different demands may be promising for tubular tissue engineering. Statement of Significance Most tubular constructs lack sufficient strength and tunability to comply with the mechanical demands of native tissues. Therefore, we embedded coupled helical coils (CHCs) produced from biodegradable polymers - to mimic collagen fiber orientation as found in nature - in collagen type I sponges. We show that the mechanical behavior of CHCs is very similar to native tissue and strengths structurally weak tubular constructs. The production procedure is relatively easy, reproducible and mechanical features can be controlled to meet different mechanical demands. This is promising in template manufacture, hence offering new opportunities in tissue engineering of tubular organs and preventing graft failure.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a promising technology to develop customized biomaterials in regenerative medicine. However, for the majority of printable biomaterials (bioinks) there is always a compromise between excellent printability of fluids and good mechanical properties of solids. Three-dimensional printing of soft materials based on the transition from a fluid to gel state is challenging because of the difficulties to control such transition as well as to maintain uniform conditions three-dimensionally. To solve these challenges, a facile chemical strategy for the development of a novel hydrogel bioink with shear-thinning and self-healing properties based on dynamic metal–ligand coordination bonds is presented. The noncovalent cross-linking allows easy extrusion of the bioink from a reservoir without changing of its bulk mechanical properties. The soft hydrogel can avoid deformation and collapse using omnidirectional embedding of the printable hydrogel into a support gel bath sharing the same ...

Dynamic covalent chemistry forming hydrazone and oxime linkages is attractive due to its simplicity, selectivity and compatibility under aqueous conditions. However, the low reaction rate at physiological pH hampers its use in biomedical applications. Herein, we present different monovalent and bivalent aqueous salt solutions as bio-friendly, non-toxic catalysts which can drive the hydrazone and oxime reactions with excellent efficacy at physiological pH. Direct comparison of hydrazone and oxime reactions using a small molecule model, without any salt catalysis, indicated that oxime formation is 6-times faster than hydrazone formation. Addition of different salts (NaCl, NaBr, KCl, LiCl, LiClO4, Na2SO4, MgCl2 and CaCl2) accelerated the pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics by similar to 1.2-4.9-fold for acylhydrazone formation and by similar to 1.5-6.9-fold for oxime formation, in a concentration-dependent manner. We further explored the potential of such catalysts to develop acylhydrazone and oxime cross-linked hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels with different physicochemical properties without changing the degree of chemical modification. Analogous to the small molecule model system, the addition of monovalent and divalent salts as catalysts significantly reduced the gelling time. The gelling time for the acylhydrazone cross-linked HA-hydrogel (1.6 wt%) could be reduced from 300 min to 1.2 min by adding 100 mM CaCl2, while that for the oxime cross-linked HA-hydrogel (1.2 wt%) could be reduced from 68 min to 1.1 min by adding 50 mM CaCl2. This difference in the gelling time also resulted in hydrogels with differential swelling properties as measured after 24 h. Our results are the first to demonstrate the use of salts, for catalyzing hydrogel formation under physiologically relevant conditions. De två första författarna delar förstaförfattarskapet.

Injectable hydrogels based on extracellular matrix-derived polymers show much promise in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. However, the hydrogels reported to date have at least one characteristic that limits their potential for clinical use, such as excessive swelling, complicated and potentially toxic cross-linking process, or lack of shear thinning and self-healing properties. We hypothesized that a collagen hydrogel cross-linked using thiol-Michael addition click reaction would be able to overcome these limitations. To this end, collagen was modified to introduce thiol groups, and hydrogels were prepared by cross-linking with 8-arm polyethylene glycol-maleimide. Rheological measurements on the hydrogels revealed excellent shear-thinning and self-healing properties. Additionally, only minimal swelling (6%) was observed over a period of 1 month in an aqueous buffer solution. Finally, tests using mesenchymal stromal cells and endothelial cells showed that the hydrogels are cell-compatible and suitable for cell encapsulation and delivery. Thus, the reported thiolated-collagen hydrogel cross-linked using thiol-Michael addition click reaction overcomes most of the challenges in the injectable hydrogel design and is an excellent candidate for cell delivery in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications. The hydrogel reported here is the first example of a self-healing hydrogel containing covalent cross-links.

Cardiovascular diseases represent a major socio-economic burden. In recent years, considerable effort has been invested in optimizing cell delivery strategies to advance cell transplantation therapies to restore heart function for example after an infarct. A particular issue is that the implantation of cells using a non-electroconductive matrix potentially causes arrhythmia. Here, we demonstrate that our hydrazide-functionalized nanotubes-pericardial matrix-derived electroconductive biohybrid hydrogel provides a suitable environment for maturation of human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cardiomyocytes. hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes exhibited an improved contraction amplitude (>500%) on conductive hydrogels compared to cells cultured on Matrigel®. This was accompanied by increased cellular alignment, enhanced connexin 43 expression, and improved sarcomere organization suggesting maturation of the hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes. Sarcomeric length of these cells increased from 1.3 to 1.7 μm. Moreover, 3D cell-laden engineered tissues exhibited enhanced calcium handling as well as positive response to external electrical and pharmaceutical stimulation. Collectively, our data indicate that our biohybrid hydrogels consisting of solubilized nanostructured pericardial matrix and electroconductive positively charged hydrazide-conjugated carbon nanotubes provide a promising material for stem cell-based cardiac tissue engineering.

The disulfide bond plays a crucial role in protein biology and has been exploited by scientists to develop antibody-drug conjugates, sensors, and for the immobilization other biomolecules to materials surfaces. In spite of its versatile use, the disulfide chemistry suffers from some inevitable limitations such as the need for basic conditions (pH8.5), strong oxidants, and long reaction times. We demonstrate here that thiol-substrates containing electron-withdrawing groups at the β-position influence the deprotonation of the thiol group, which is the key reaction intermediate in the formation of disulfide bonds. Evaluation of reaction kinetics using small molecule substrate such as l-cysteine indicated disulfide formation at a 2.8-fold higher ( k

Currently, there are limited approaches to tailor 3D scaffolds cross-linked with a stable covalent C-C bond that does not require any catalysts or initiators. We present here the first hydrogels employing aldol condensation chemistry that exhibit exceptional physicochemical properties. We investigated the aldol-cross-linking chemistry using two types of aldehyde-modified hyaluronic acid (HA) derivatives, namely, an enolizable HA-aldehyde (HA-Eal) and a non-enolizable HA-aldehyde (HA-Nal). Hydrogels formed using HA-Eal demonstrate inferior cross-linking efficiency (due to intramolecular loop formation), when compared with hydrogels formed by mixing HA-Eal and HA-NaI leading to a cross-aldol product. The change in mechanical properties as a result of cross-linking at different pH values is determined using rheological measurements and is interpreted in terms of molecular weight between cross-links (Mc). The novel HA cross-aldol hydrogel demonstrate excellent hydrolytic stability and favorable mechanical properties but allow hyaluronidase-mediated enzymatic degradation. Interestingly, residual aldehyde functionality within the aldol product rendered the tissue-adhesive properties by bonding two bone tissues. The aldehyde functionality also facilitated facile post-synthetic modifications with nucleophilic reagents. Finally, we demonstrate that the novel hydrogel is biocompatible with encapsulated stem cells that show a linear rate of expansion in our 3-6 days of study.

Click chemistry is not a single specific reaction, but describes ways of generating products which emulate examples in nature. Click reactions occur in one pot, are not disturbed by water, generate minimal and inoffensive byproducts, and are characterized by a high thermodynamic driving force, driving the reaction quickly and irreversibly towards a high yield of a single reaction product. As a result, over the past 15 years it has become a very useful bio-orthogonal method for the preparation of chemical cross-linked biopolymer-based hydrogel, in the presence of e.g. growth factors and live cells, or in-vivo. Biopolymers are renewable and non-toxic, providing a myriad of potential backbone toolboxes for hydrogel design. The goal of this review is to summarize recent advances in the development of click chemistry-based biopolymeric hydrogels, and their applications in regenerative medicine. In particular, various click chemistry approaches, including copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions, copper-free click reactions (e.g. the Diels–Alder reactions, the strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions, the radical mediated thiol-ene reactions, and the oxime-forming reactions), and pseudo-click reactions (e.g. the thiol-Michael addition reactions and the Schiff base reactions) are highlighted in the first section. In addition, numerous biopolymers, including proteins (e.g. collagen, gelatin, silk, and mucin), polysaccharides (e.g. hyaluronic acid, alginate, dextran, and chitosan) and polynucleotides (e.g. deoxyribonucleic acid), are discussed. Finally, we discuss biopolymeric hydrogels, cross-linked by click chemistry, intended for the regeneration of skin, bone, spinal cord, cartilage, and cornea. This article provides new insights for readers in terms of the design of regenerative medicine, and the use of biopolymeric hydrogels based on click chemistry reactions.

Hyaluronic acid (HA) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) polymers are extensively used for various biomedical applications, such as for tissue engineering, drug delivery, and gene delivery. Although both these biopolymers are known to target cell surface CD44 receptors, their relative cellular targeting properties and immune activation potential have never been evaluated. In this article, we present the synthesis and characterization of novel self-assembled supramolecular HA and CS nanoparticles (NPs). These NPs were developed using fluorescein as a hydrophobic component that induced amphiphilicity in biopolymers and also efficiently stabilized anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) promoting a near zero-order drug release. The cellular uptake and cytotoxicity studies of these NPs in different human cancer lines, namely, human colorectal carcinoma cell line HCT116 and human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 demonstrated dose dependent cytotoxicity. Interestingly, both NPs showed CD44 dependent cellular uptake with the CS-DOX NP displaying higher dose-dependent cytotoxicity than the HA-DOX NP in different mammalian cells tested. Immunological evaluation of these nanocarriers in an ex vivo human whole blood model revealed that unlike unmodified polymers, the HA NP and CS NP surprisingly showed platelet aggregation and thrombin-antithrombin complex formation at high concentrations (0.8 mg/mL). We also observed a clear difference in early- and late-stage complement activation (C3a and sC5b-9) with CS and CS NP triggering significant complement activation at high concentrations (0.08-0.8 mg/mL), unlike HA and HA NP. These results offer new insight into designing glycosaminoglycan-based NPs and understanding their hematological responses and targeting ability.

We have developed the first chondroitin sulfate polymer coated gold nanoparticles that can simultaneously overcome mulidrug resistance in cancer cells and suppress thromboinflammation triggered by the chemotherapeutic drug.

An in situ cross-linkable hyaluronan hydrogel functionalized with bisphosphonate (BP) groups allows tunable release of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) determined by the amount of BP groups. The high affinity of matrix-anchored BP groups towards BMP-2 permits guided differentiation of entrapped progenitor cells in 3-D cultures.

We report a strategy to generate a self-healing and pH responsive hydrogel network between drug-loaded nanoparticles and natural polysaccharides via magnesium-bisphosphonate ligand interactions. The injectable drug depot disassembles in a tumor-specific environment, providing localized uptake of the nanoparticles, which is highly appreciated in drug delivery applications and manufacturing of drug-loaded biomaterials using a syringe-based deposition technique.

Utilizing the non-covalent π-π stacking of pyrene functionalized molecules onto graphene surfaces has achieved great success in the detection of various bio-objects, while the fundamental investigations on surface modifications stills remain rarely exploited. Here, we report the nano and atomic scale analysis of the π-π stacking functionalized graphene surface regarding to its surface topography, molecular self-assembly as well as process optimizations. The ‘amphipathic’ molecule, pyrene-maltose, is used for the non-covalent functionalization of graphene and systematical analysis is performed to understand the influence of different solvents on the molecular surface arrangement. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and spectroscopy analysis indicate the successful formation of pyrene-maltose layer on graphene surface and it is further confirmed by scanning tunneling microscopy, depicting the self-assembled and densely packed pyrene-maltose layer that give distinguished and ordered diamond-shape lattice as compared to triangular lattice in pristine graphene. We also demonstrated that the interfacial adhesion forces between the AFM probe and the functionalized surfaces allow the detection of the lectin protein Concavalin A through selective absorption. This work provides essential evidence of the π-π interactions between pyrene molecules and graphene, and the AFM based adhesion measurement also has the potential to be employed in a variety of bio-detection applications.

DNA technology based bio-responsive nanomaterials have been widely studied as promising tools for biomedical applications. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and graphene oxide (GO) sheets are representative zero- and two-dimensional nanomaterials that have long been combined with DNA technology for point-of-care diagnostics. Herein, a cascade amplification system based on duplex-specific nuclease (DSN)-assisted target recycling and electrocatalytic water-splitting is demonstrated for the detection of microRNA. Target microRNAs can form DNA: RNA heteroduplexes with DNA probes on the surface of AuNPs, which can be hydrolyzed by DSN. MicroRNAs are preserved during the reaction and released into the suspension for the digestion of multiple DNA probes. After the DSN-based reaction, AuNPs are collected and mixed with GO to form AuNP/GO nanocomposite on an electrode for the following electrocatalytic amplification. The utilization of AuNP/GO nanocomposite offers large surface area, exceptional affinity to water molecules, and facilitated mass diffusion for the water-splitting reaction. For let-7b detection, the proposed biosensor achieved a limit detection of 1.5 fM in 80 min with a linear detection range of approximately four orders of magnitude. Moreover, it has the capability of discriminating non-target microRNAs containing even single-nucleotide mismatches, thus holding considerable potential for clinical diagnostics.

We describe the fast reaction kinetics between 1,2-aminothiols and aldehydes. Under physiological conditions such a click-type reaction afforded a thiazolidine product that remains stable and did not require any catalyst. This type of bioorthogonal reaction offers enormous potential for the coupling of biomolecules in an efficient and biocompatible manner.

Osteoporosis involves hyperactive osteoclasts. A large number of current drugs result in side effects affecting their efficacy in the clinic. Polyphosphoesters are unique polymeric biomaterials because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and bone affinity. We studied the viability and ability of human osteoclasts to resorb bone when dosed with poly(ethylene sodium phosphate) (PEP·Na). This did not trigger any change in osteoblast cell viability, however the polymer diminished human osteoclasts and their ability to resorb bone at concentrations as low as 10(-4) m · mL(-1). This is the first report to validate the possibility of using polyphosphoesters for selective inhibition of human osteoclast functions, indicating its potential to be used as an effective polymer prodrug for treatment of osteoporosis.

Degradation of plasmid DNA (pDNA) in the endosome compartment and its release to the cytosol are the major hurdles for efficient gene transfection. This is generally addressed by using transfection reagents that can overcome these limitations. In this article, the first report is presented which suggests that controlling the release of pDNA from endosome is the key for achieving efficient transfection. In this study, chondroitin sulfate (CS)-coated DNA-nanoplexes are developed using a modular approach where CS is coated post-pDNA/PEI nanoplex formation. To ensure good stability of the nanoplexes, imine/enamine chemistry is exploited by reacting aldehyde-modified chondroitin sulfate (CS-CHO) with free amines of pDNA/PEI complex. This supramolecular nanocarrier system displays efficient cellular uptake, and controlled endosomal pDNA release without eliciting any cytotoxicity. On the contrary, burst release of pDNA from endosome (using chloroqine) results in significant reduction in gene expression. Unlike pDNA/PEI-based transfection, the nanoparticle design presented here shows exceptional stability and gene transfection efficiency in different cell lines such as human colorectal cancer cells (HCT116), human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293), and mouse skin-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) using luciferase protein as a reporter gene. This new insight will be valuable in designing next generation of transfection reagents.

A novel approach to hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel with a chemical gradient of the matrix-linked bisphosphonate (BP) groups is presented. The method consists of two steps, including initial generation of physical gradient patterns of BPs by diffusion of BP acrylamide reagent into HA matrix carrying thiol groups and subsequent chemical immobilization of the BP groups by UV light-triggered thiol-ene addition reaction. This gradient hydrogel permits spatial three-dimensional regulation of secondary interactions of different molecules with the polymer matrix. In particular, graded amounts of cytochrome c (cyt c) were reversibly absorbed in the hydrogel, thus enabling the subsequent spatially controlled release of the therapeutic protein. The obtained patterned hydrogel acts also as a unique reactor in which peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of a substrate is determined by spatial position of the enzyme (cyt c) in the matrix resulting in a range of product concentrations. As an example, matrix template-assisted oxidation of 3,3',5,5'-tetarmethylbenzydine (TMB) in the presence of H2O2 occurs simultaneously at different rates within the gradient hydrogel. Moreover, calcium binding to the gradient HABP hydrogel reflects the pattern of immobilized BP groups eventually leading to the graded biomineralization of the matrix. This approach opens new possibilities for use of hydrogels as dynamic models for biologic three-dimensional structures such as extracellular matrix.

Biomaterial-based regenerative approaches would allow for cost-effective off-the-shelf solution for the treatment of wounds. Hyaluronan (HA)-based hydrogel is one attractive biomaterial candidate because it is involved in natural healing processes, including inflammation, granulation, and reepithelialization. Herein, dynamic metal-ligand coordination bonds are used to fabricate moldable supramolecular HA hydrogels with self-healing properties. To achieve reversible crosslinking of HA chains, the biopolymer is modified with pendant bisphosphonate (BP) ligands using carbodiimide coupling and chemoselective "click" reactions. Hydrogel is formed immediately after simple addition of silver (Ag+ ) ions to the solution of HA containing BP groups (HA-BP). Compared with previous HA-based wound healing hydrogels, the HA-BP·Ag+ hydrogel is highly suitable for clinical use as it can fill irregularly shaped wound defects without the need for premolding. The HA-BP·Ag+ hydrogel shows antimicrobial properties to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains, enabling prevention of infections in wound care. In vivo evaluation using a rat full-thickness skin wound model shows significantly lower wound remaining rate and a thicker layer of regenerated epidermis as compared with the group left without treatment. The presented moldable and self-healing supramolecular HA hydrogel with "ready-to-use" properties possesses a great potential for regenerative wound treatment.

The aim of this study was to investigate if a synthetic granular calcium phosphate compound (CPC) and a composite bisphosphonate-linked hyaluronic acid-calcium phosphate hydrogel (HABP·CaP) induced similar or more amount of bone as bovine mineral in a modified sinus lift rabbit model.Eighteen adult male New Zeeland White rabbits, received randomly one of the two test materials on a random side of the face, and bovine mineral as control on the contralateral side. In a sinus lift, the sinus mucosa was elevated and a titanium mini-implant was placed in the alveolar bone. Augmentation material (CPC, HABP·CaP or bovine bone) was applied in the space around the implant. The rabbits were euthanized three months after surgery and qualitative and histomorphometric evaluation were conducted. Histomorphometric evaluation included three different regions of interest (ROIs) and the bone to implant contact on each installed implant.Qualitative assessment (p = .05), histomorphometric evaluations (p = .01), and implant incorporation (p = .05) showed that CPC and bovine mineral induced similar amount of bone and more than the HABP·CaP hydrogel.CPC induced similar amount of bone as bovine mineral and both materials induced more bone than HABP·CaP hydrogel.The CPC is suggested as a synthetic alternative for augmentations in the maxillofacial area.

Aim: This study aimed to identify host cell recruitment patterns in a mouse model in response to rhBMP-2 releasing hyaluronic acid hydrogels and influence of added nano-hydroxyapatite particles on rhBMP-2 release and pattern of bone formation. Materials & methods: Implanted gels were retrieved after implantation and cells were enzymatically dissociated for flow cytometric analysis. Percentages of macrophages, progenitor endothelial cells and putative mesenchymal stem cells were measured. Implants were evaluated for BMP-2 release by ELISA and by histology to monitor tissue formation. Results & conclusion: Hyaluronic acid+BMP-2 gels influenced the inflammatory response in the bone healing microenvironment. Host-derived putative mesenchymal stem cells were major contributors. Addition of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles modified the release pattern of rhBMP-2, resulting in enhanced bone formation.

Scaffolds derived from decellularized cardiac tissue offer an enormous advantage for cardiac applications as they recapitulate biophysical and cardiac specific cues. However, poor electrical conductivity and mechanical properties severely compromise the therapeutic potential of these matrices. Dispersion of multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCTs) in these scaffolds could improve their mechanical and electrical properties. However, the inherent hydrophobicity and poor dispersibility of these materials under aqueous conditions limit their outcome. We have developed a modified MWCNT functionalized with carbodihydrazide (CDH) residues that significantly improved their dispersibility and suppressed cytotoxicity in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. We found that the doping of CDH functionalized MWCNT (CDH-MWCNT) as low as 0.5 wt% to the pericardial matrix hydrogel (PMNT) induced the necessary electrical conductivity and significantly improved the mechanical properties of the hydrogel. Cardiomyocytes cultured on a PMNT scaffold triggered proliferation and significantly increased the expression of cardiac-specific gap junction protein, namely connexin 43. Such a phenomenon was not observed when cardiomyocytes were cultured on the pericardial matrix derived gels without MWCNT or on gelatin-fibronectin coated 2D cultures. The PMNT gels displayed excellent biophysical characteristics resulting in the clustering of cardiomyocytes with synchronous contraction, which is crucial for the successful integration to the host tissue. publishedVersion

The immune system guards the body against alien substances such as microorganisms and rids the body of wastes. It also responds to a variety of medical therapeutic modalities, such as the transplantation of cells or whole organs or treatment with biomaterials. This chapter highlights the innate immune reactions that are triggered by biomaterial surfaces when they come into contact with human body fluids and tissues.

Haemodialysis is a life-saving renal replacement modality for end-stage renal disease, but this therapy also represents a major challenge to the intravascular innate immune system, which is comprised of the complement, contact and coagulation systems. Chronic inflammation is strongly associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) in patients on haemodialysis. Biomaterial-induced contact activation of proteins within the plasma cascade systems occurs during haemodialysis and initially leads to local generation of inflammatory mediators on the biomaterial surface. The inflammation is spread by soluble activation products and mediators that are generated during haemodialysis and transported in the extracorporeal circuit back into the patient together with activated leukocytes and platelets. The combined effect is activation of the endothelium of the cardiovascular system, which loses its anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory properties, leading to atherogenesis and arteriosclerosis. This concept suggests that maximum suppression of the intravascular innate immune system is needed to minimize the risk of CVD in patients on haemodialysis. A potential approach to achieve this goal is to treat patients with broad-specificity systemic drugs that target more than one of the intravascular cascade systems. Alternatively, 'stealth' biomaterials that cause minimal cascade system activation could be used in haemodialysis circuits.

Secondary damage after spinal cord injury (SCI) induces neuronal demise through neurotoxicity and inflammation, and interleukin (IL)-1b is a key inflammatory mediator. We hypothesized that IL-1b is released in spinal cord slice cultures (SCSC) and aimed at preventing the potentially neurotoxic effects of IL-1b by using interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL1RA). We hypothesized that IL1RA treatment enhances neuronal survival and suppresses microglial activation. SCSC were cultured up to 8 days in vitro (DIV) in the presence of IL1RA or without, either combined with trophic support using neurotrophin (NT)-3 or not. Four groups were studied: negative control, IL1RA, NT-3, and IL1RA 1NT-3. IL-1b concentrations in supernatants were measured by ELISA. SCSC were immunohistochemically stained for NeuN and a-neurofilament, and microglial cells were visualized with isolectin B4. After 8 DIV, ventral horn neurons were significantly more numerous in the IL1RA, NT-3, and IL1RA 1NT-3 groups compared with negative controls. Activated microglial cells were significantly less numerous in the IL1RA, NT-3, and IL1RA 1NT-3 groups compared with negative controls. Axons expanded into the collagen matrix after treatment with IL1RA, NT-3, or IL1RA 1NT-3, but not in negative controls. IL-1b release from cultures peaked after 6 hr and was lowest in the IL1RA 1NT-3 group. We conclude that IL-1b is released in traumatized spinal cord tissue and that IL1RA could exert its neuroprotective actions by blocking IL-1receptors. IL1RA thereby sustains neuronal survival irrespective of the presence of additional trophic support. Microglial activation is suppressed in the presence of IL1RA, suggesting decreased inflammatory activity. IL1RA treatment approaches may have substantial impact fol

The development of multimodal in situ cross-linkable hyaluronic acid nanogels hybridized with iron oxide nanoparticles is reported. Utilizing a chemoselective hydrazone coupling reaction, the nanogels are converted to a macroscopic hybrid hydrogel without any additional reagent. Hydrophobic cargos remain encapsulated in the hydrophobic domains of the hybrid hydrogel without leakage. However, hydrogel degradation with hyaluronidase liberates iron oxide nanoparticles. This allows the utilization of imaging agents as tracers of the hydrogel degradation. UV-vis spectrometry and MRI studies reveal that the degradability of the hydrogels correlates with their structure. The hydrogels presented here are very promising theranostic tools for hyaluronidase-mediated delivery of hydrophobic drugs, as well as imaging of hydrogel degradation and tracking of degradation products in vivo.