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One of the most important factors that increase the destructive effects of earthquakes and structural damages is the soil deformations during strong ground motion. The liquefaction occurs especially in saturated sandy soils as a result of the sudden increase in pore water pressure during the earthquakes and leads to large deformations in the soil layer and serious damages to engineering structures. In this study, by using three different sand properties with relative densities of 35, 55 and 75%, two-dimensional soil profiles were created and dynamic analyzes were carried out using fourteen different acceleration-time histories records. In the numerical analysis was performed with a finite element software and PM4Sand constitutive equations were used to model the liquefaction behavior of sand layers. The numerical analysis results were compared with the well-known semi-empirical methods in the literature. In addition, the relationships between the parameters used to define strong ground motion and the liquefaction-induced settlements obtained from numerical and semi-empirical analyzes were investigated., Depremlerin yıkıcı etkisini ve yapısal hasarları arttıran en önemli faktörlerden biri, dinamik yükler altında zemin tabakalarında oluşan deformasyonlardır. Özellikle suya doygun kumlu zeminlerde, kuvvetli yer hareketi sırasında boşluk suyu basıncındaki ani artış nedeniyle meydana gelen sıvılaşmalar, zemin tabakalarında büyük deformasyonlara yol açmakta ve mühendislik yapılarında ciddi hasarlara neden olmaktadır. Bu çalışma kapsamında, rölatif sıkılığı %35, 55, 75 olan üç farklı kum zemin özellikleri kullanılarak iki boyutlu zemin profilleri oluşturulmuş ve on dört farklı kuvvetli yer hareketi kullanılarak doğrusal olmayan dinamik analizler bir sonlu eleman yazılımıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kum zemin tabakalarının sıvılaşma davranışını modellemek için ise programda yer alan PM4Sand bünye denklemleri kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen numerik analiz sonuçları literatürde yer alan ve iyi bilinen yarı-ampirik yöntemlerle karşılaştırılmıştır. Buna ek olarak, kuvvetli yer hareketini tanımlamak için kullanılan parametrelerle, numerik ve yarı-ampirik analizler sonucunda elde edilen sıvılaşma kaynaklı oturmalar arasındaki ilişkiler incelenmiştir.

A site-specific seismic hazard analysis may be considered as composed of four consecutive stages that can be assumed independent and thus evaluated separately. The first stage is the estimation of the design earthquake magnitude based on seismological and geological data in the region. The second stage is the estimation of the source distance of the design earthquake. The third stage is the estimation of the design earthquake characteristics at the bedrock based on attenuation relationships. The fourth stage is the estimation of design earthquake characteristics on the ground surface based on the local geotechnical site conditions. Each of these stages involves various degrees of uncertainties therefore probabilistic approaches need to be adopted to determine the exceedence probabilities in these four stages to evaluate the overall uncertainty. A case study conducted for a site in Bursa located in western Turkey will be presented for determining the design earthquake characteristics with respect to a constant exceedence probability in these four stages.

In this article, the long-term filtration performance of recycled asphalt pavement material (𝑅𝐴𝑃), one of the types of construction/demolition (𝐶&𝐷) waste, is investigated when used as a filter material in highway drainage systems. Long-term filtration tests (𝐿𝐹𝑇) were carried out in the 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 experimental setup, which was redesigned and manufactured in order to determine the permeability behavior of the drainage system consisting of recycled asphalt and geotextile. With the usage of modified 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 test setup, potential clogging mechanisms that may occur, and the change in grain size distribution of the material with respect to time and flow direction were determined. The long-term filtration test program aims to prove that recycled asphalt material could be used instead of natural filter materials particularly in the construction of highway drainage systems. The recovery of this material by reusing it will, eliminate the storage problem, prevent environmental pollution and make a contribution in terms of sustainable material management (𝑆𝑀𝑀) in geotechnical engineering applications. In the study, the long-term filtration behavior of the drainage system consisting of aggregate and geotextile was investigated in the modified 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 test system. The gradient ratio (𝐺𝑅) and the permeability ratio (𝐾𝑅) were determined in the long-term filtration experiments performed under different hydraulic gradients, which define the clogging performance of the aggregate/geotextile system. Recycled asphalt aggregate and natural aggregate (𝑁𝐴) were used to evaluate the filtration performance of aggregates. A non-woven geotextile material with a pore opening to represent the worst conditions in terms of clogging was selected considering its hydraulic and physical properties. The results of the long term filtration tests indicate that the performance of the recycled asphalt material is comparable to the natural aggregate. Additionaly with controlled bitumen content, it can be used as an aggregate material in highway drainage systems in terms of filtration properties, thus contributing to sustainable material management. Therefore, with the re-use of 𝑅𝐴𝑃 as a filter material in highway drainage systems a contribution to the protection of environment could be achieved., Bu makalede, inşaat/yıkım (𝐶&𝐷) atığı türlerinden biri olan asfalt atık malzemesinin (𝑅𝐴𝑃) yol altı drenaj sistemlerinde filtre malzemesi olarak kullanılabilirliğinin tespiti için uzun süreli filtrasyon performansı incelenmiştir. Geri kazanılmış asfalt ve geotekstilden oluşan drenaj sisteminin zamana bağlı permeabilite davranışının belirlenmesi için yeniden tasarlanarak, geliştirilen ve imalatı yaptırılan 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 deney düzeneğinde uzun süreli filtrasyon deneyleri (𝐿𝐹𝑇) yapılmıştır. Geliştirilmiş 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 deneyi ile geri kazanılmış asfalt-geotekstil sisteminde oluşabilecek potansiyel tıkanma mekanizmaları, zaman ve akış yönüne bağlı olarak malzeme dane çapı dağılımındaki değişimler belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada, uzun süreli filtrasyon deneyleri ile özellikle yol altı drenaj sistemlerinin teşkilinde kullanılacak olan doğal filtre malzemeleri yerine geri kazanılmış asfalt malzemenin kullanılabileceğini göstermek amaçlanmaktadır. Geri kazanılmış asfalt malzemenin tekrardan kullanımı ile depolama sorununun ortadan kalkmasına, çevre kirliliğinin önlenmesine ve geoteknik mühendisliği açısından sürdürülebilir malzeme yönetimine (𝑆𝑀𝑀) katkıda bulunulmuş olunacaktır. Makalede agrega ve geotekstilden oluşan drenaj sisteminin uzun süreli filtrasyon davranışı, geliştirilmiş 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 deney sisteminde incelenmiştir. Değişik hidrolik eğimler altında gerçekleştirilen uzun süreli filtrasyon deneylerinde agrega-geotekstil sisteminin tıkanma performansını tanımlayacak olan hidrolik eğim oranı (𝐺𝑅) ve geçirimlilik oranı (𝐾𝑅) değerleri belirlenmiştir. Çalışmada agrega olarak geri kazanılmış asfalt ve bu malzemenin filtrasyon performansının karşılaştırılması amacı ile doğal agrega (𝑁𝐴) kullanılmıştır. Geotekstil olarak tıkanma açısından en olumsuz durumu sağlayacak gözenek açıklığına sahip olan bir örgüsüz geotekstil tercih edilmiştir. Geliştirilmiş 𝐴𝑆𝑇𝑀 𝐷 5101 deney sistemi kullanılarak yapılan deneyler sonucunda, geri kazanılmış asfalt malzemenin performansının doğal agrega sonuçları ile yeterli seviyede karşılaştırılabilir olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Buna ek olarak, içeriğindeki bitüm malzeme oranı kontrol edildiği takdirde filtrasyon özellikleri bakımından yol altı drenaj sistemlerinde agrega olarak kullanılabilineceği düşünülmektedir. Böylece 𝑅𝐴𝑃’nın yeniden kullanımı ile sürdürülebilir malzeme yönetimine ve çevrenin korunmasına katkıda bulunulmuş olunacaktır.

The deformation level of the surface soil layerdue to strong ground motion has a considerable effect in soil-structureinteraction problems. The shear strain values of the near surface soil depositswhich are calculated by one dimensional (1D) seismic site response analyses canalso be estimated by incorporating the results obtained fromHorizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR) analysis of microtremor data and peakhorizontal acceleration value of design ground motion. In this study, theseismic behaviour of soil layers at a site located in the vicinity of NorthAnatolian Fault were estimated by both 1D equivalent linear seismic site responseanalyses under 14 different rock outcrop motion records and analyses of groundambient noise-microtremor measurement data. A correlation is proposed forelastic and elasto-plastic deformation levels of surface soil layers in orderto estimate the value of shear strain due to strong ground motion, Depremler sırasında zemin tabakalarında oluşan deformasyonseviyeleri, yapı-zemin etkileşiminde önemli rol oynamaktadır. Kuvvetli yer hareketi kayıtları kullanılarakyapılan bir boyutlu (1D) dinamik analizlerle yüzeye yakın zemin tabakaları içinhesaplanan kayma şekil değiştirmeleri, küçük genlikli titreşimler-mikrotremor verisianaliz sonuçlarının tasarım yer hareketine ait en büyük yatay ivme değeriyle birliktedeğerlendirilmesiyle de tahmin edilebilmektedir. Buçalışmada, Kuzey Anadolu Fay Hattına yakın bir bölgede zemin tabakalarının depremhareketi karşısındaki davranışı hem 14 farklı anakaya ivme kaydı kullanılarak yapılan 1D eşdeğer lineer dinamik analizlerle hem de mikrotremor ölçümlerininanalizi yardımıyla elde edilmiştir. Verilerin değerlendirilmesi sonucunda;kuvvetli yer hareketi sırasında yüzeye yakın zemin tabakalarında oluşacak kaymabirim şekil değiştirmesinin belirlenebilmesi amacıyla, elastik ve elasto-plastikdeformasyon seviyelerini kapsayan bir bağıntı önerilmiştir.

Depremler sırasında yüzeyde oluşan yer hareketi, deprem kaynak özelliklerinin yanı sıra yerel zemin koşulları ve jeolojik yapıdan da etkilenmektedir. Yerel etkilerin kuvvetli yer hareketinin genlik ve frekans içeriğinde neden olduğu değişim, zeminlerin dinamik davranışına da yansımaktadır. Bu çalışmada kenardaki anakaya eğiminin, deprem sırasında yüzeyde oluşan harekete etkisini incelemek amacıyla Dinar ovası modeli kullanılarak farklı ivme kayıtları için bir ve iki boyutlu dinamik analizler yapılmış, sonuçlar karşılaştırılmıştır. Yüzeyde farklı noktalar için hesaplanan spektral ivme oranlarının (2D/1D) kenardan uzaklığa bağlı değişimi incelenmiştir. Farklı anakaya eğimine sahip modellerde bir ve iki boyutlu analizlerle hesaplanmış spektral ivme değerleri arasında bir ilişki belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Anakaya derinliği ve kayma dalgası hızının derinlikle değişimi bölgede yapılan geniş açıklıklı eş zamanlı mikrotremor ağ ölçümleriyle belirlenmiştir.

ÖZET Geoteknik Mühendisliğinde zemin kesitinde yer alan tabakaların mühendislik özellikleri laboratuvarda ve arazide yapılan deneyler yardımı ile belirlenebilmektedir. Laboratuvar yöntemleri elastik ve elastik olmayan davranışların incelenmesinde ve gerilme, boşluk oranı, malzeme sönümü ve deformasyon ilişkilerinin incelenmesinde parametrik çalışmalar yapılmasına imkan tanımaktadır. Ancak bu deneylerde elde edilen sonuçlar kullanılan zemin numunelerinin özelliklerine bağlı kalmaktadır. Zemin numuneleri ise örselenmenin etkisindedir ve alındıkları tabakanın küçük bir bölgesini temsil etmektedir. İlgilenilen derinlik boyunca tabaka özelliklerinin belirlenmesinde çok sayıda deney numunesine gerek duyulmaktadır. Zemin dinamik özelliklerinin yerinde yapılan deneyler ile bulunmasına olanak sağlayan Karşıt Kuyu ve Aşağı Kuyu gibi sismik yöntemler doğal koşullarda arazi parçasının daha geniş bölümünde uygulanabilmekte ve sonuçları tüm tabaka için geçerli olmaktadır. Yapay olarak üretilen sismik dalgaların belli mesafelerde gözlenmesini içeren bu yöntemler ile ölçülen hızlara bağlı olarak zemin özellikleri kolayca bulunabilmektedir. Diğer arazi deneyleri ve laboratuvar yöntemleri ile karşılaştırıldığında bu deney teknikleri önemli üstünlüklere sahiptir. Arazide dinamik zemin özelliklerinin sismik yöntemler yardımı ile belirlenmesi amacıyla Karşıt Kuyu ve Aşağı Kuyu sismik deney sisteminin kurulması, kurulan bu sistem ile seçilen çeşitli sahalarda arazi uygulamalarının gerçekleştirilmesi ve ölçülen sismik dalga hızlarının, arazi penetrasyon deneyleri ile ilişkisi incelenip aralarında korelasyon bağıntıların geliştirilmesi bu çalışmanın amacını teşkil etmektedir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, oluşturulan bilgisayar destekli sismik deney düzeni ile üç ayrı sahada arazi uygulamaları yapılmış ve zemin kesitinde yer alan tabakaların hız profilleri elde edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlar, sondajlarda alınan numuneler üzerinde yapılan sonuçları ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Ayrıca zeminler için önemli bir özellik olan sönüm ölçümleri de gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sismik dalga hızları ile arazi penetrasyon deneyleri arasındaki ilişki incelenirken, SPT-N darbe sayısı, CPT-qc uç mukavemeti ve Dinamik sonda darbe sayısı değişken olarak alınmıştır. SPT-N sayılarının derinlik düzeltilmesi yapılmış değerleri de bir değişken olarak alınmış ve pratik amaçlar için belli bir güvenlik içinde kullanılabilir amprik bağıntılar çıkarılmıştır. Bu incelemelerde zemin tipi, derinlik ve efektif düşey gerilmenin etkisi de incelenmiş, kayma ve basınç dalgası hızını bu değişkenler cinsinden tahmin için çeşitli bağıntılar sunulmuştur. Arazide uygulanan SPT, CPT ve DS deney sonuçları arasında da korelasyon bağıntıları geliştirilmiştir. vı THE COMPARISON OF IN-SITÜ SEISMIC AND PENETRATION TEST FOR THE DETERMINATION OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES SUMMARY In-situ testing methods involving seismic velocity measurements of wave propagation which is generated from an artificial source are widely used for determining the dynamic soil properties. Like most engineering materials, soils also behave elastically at very small strain levels. The threshold strain level where soils behave as an elastic material is about 10- 3 percent. The seismic waves generated below this threshold strain level propagate with characteristics depending on physical properties of medium such as density, elastic moduli and material damping. As a result, observation and interpretation of seismic waves may contain very relevant information about the soil properties. Shear and constrained moduli, for example, are directly related to shear and compression wave velocities, respectively. Seismic methods simply consist of measuring the time required for the waves generated from a source to travel given distances. Once the travel time and distances monitoring waves have been measured, wave velocities can be calculated by dividing distance of travel by travel time. If wave velocities are known, other elastic constants can be determined from following equations; G=(67g)Vs2 (1) M=(07g)Vp2 (2) ju=[Ö.5(Vp/Vs)2-l]/[(Vp/V8)2-l] (3) E=2G(1+m) (4) Shear Modulus Constrained Modulus Poisson's Ratio Young's Modulus Where Vs is shear wave velocity, Vp is compression wave velocity, 0 is total unit weight and g is gravitational acceleration. Shear modulus and its variation with shearing strain amplitude is a very important parameter to evaluate the response of soil and soil structures during dynamic loading. Other important dynamic soil properties include material damping and Poisson's Ratio. When a disturbance is initiated in any kind of medium, a stress wave field generated and this field contains both body waves and surface waves. Body waves propagate through the body of the soil as either compression (P) or shear (S) waves while surface waves propagate along the surface of the soil as either Rayleigh (R) or Love wave. The direction of particle motion relative to the direction of wave propagation defines the real seismic wave type. P-wave propagates in the direction of particle motion while S-wave propagates perpendicular to the direction of particle motion. If shear wave particle motion confined to a vertical or horizontal plane, it is referred to vixvertically polarized shear wave (SV) or horizontally polarized shear wave (SH), respectively. Techniques of initiating seismic waves and extracting viable information about the medium is called seismic methods in geotechnical engineering. Seismic wave measurement methods such as surface reflection and refraction have been used by geophysicists for the exploration of deposits or the depth of bedrock by measuring P-wave velocity. More recently, the surface refraction technique has been used to measure shear and compression wave velocities to determine dynamic soil properties. Although wave travel times generally are measures of distances up to hundreds of meters, when using these methods, the soil layers between bedrock and surface are considered to be little importance of a few layers with constant properties. However, when it is thought that the most civil engineering problems occur within depth of 30 meters below the surface, seismic reflection and refraction methods are difficult to apply directly to civil engineering problems. Consequently, seismic methods have been developed with which detailed soil profile characteristics can be obtain at shallow depths for engineering purposes. The requirement of more detailed dynamic soil properties necessitates the use of short distance between seismic energy source and receivers, and also the generation of identifiable waves. Among the various seismic methods used for engineering application, the Cross-Hole and Down-Hole seismic methods are most widely used and most reliable for determining dynamic soil properties, like initial elastic moduli at small strain levels. Dynamic soil properties are determined from soil samples using laboratory testing methods such as cyclic triaxial and sample shear, and resonant column or in-situ seismic testing techniques such as Cross-Hole and Down- Hole methods performed on natural conditions. Besides of laboratory methods having some advantages for performing parametric studies on the elastic and inelastic properties of soils, these methods are influenced from sample disturbance, stress relief and simulating field stress conditions in the laboratory. The results of laboratory test represent only the limited region of soil layer from which soil sample obtained. In comparison with laboratory and other in-situ tests, seismic velocity measurement methods have distinct advantages, i) They can be performed to represent larger zones of soils, ii) They have a strong theoretical basis, based on elasticity theory, iii) Measured wave velocities are independent of equipment used, so no need any correction factor, iv) Initial field stress conditions and anisotropy are automatically incorporated, v) Large zones of soil which represent the macroscopic nature of the site can be sampled. In-situ seismic methods continue to play an important role to play in geotechnical engineering, especially when dealing with low deformational characteristics of soil. Seismic wave velocity measurements are performed initially by generating waves at one point in or on the soil and measuring the required time for the direct waves of concern to travel to one or more receiver points. Wave velocity can be calculated from the distance between wave source and receiver, and travel time. In application, seismic methods are divided into two groups according to the geometrical configuration of the source and receivers just like surface and borehole seismic methods. In surface wave methods, source and receivers are on the soil surface, and having vi neconomic advantage in comparison with borehole methods, because no boreholes are necessary. The steady-state Rayleigh wave method and spectral analysis-of surface-waves (SASW) methods are known as surface methods. Borehole seismic methods are typically grouped again according to the geometrical arrangement of source and receivers, such as Cross-Hole, Down-Hole, Up-Hole, In-Hole and Bottom-Hole methods. In this study, the Cross-Hole and Down-Hole seismic methods are the only borehole methods considered. In the Cross-Hole method, the time for seismic wave to travel horizontally from a source in a borehole to one or more receivers at the same depth as the receivers in other boreholes is measured. With Down-Hole method, the time for waves to travel almost vertically from a source on the surface to one or more receivers at different depths in a single borehole is measured. This study is concerned with the determination of dynamic soil properties based on the in-situ testing techniques such as Cross-Hole and Down-Hole seismic wave velocity measuring. These kind of in-situ measurements have two basic aspects. The first aspect is involved with the technique of testing at the site and obtaining the necessary data. The second one is the analytical interpretation of field data to evaluate the soil properties of concern. Initially, for the Cross-Hole methods, boreholes with spacing in the order of 3-5 m are drilled and cased with plastic casing material to the desired depth. Logging is important for each borehole during drilling to determine soil type and layering. Borehole diameters should be as small as feasible to minimize factors affecting the results of measurement such as disturbance. Typical borehole diameters range from 7 to 15 cm. The Cross-Hole and Down-Hole seismic testing system used in implementation in this study at different sites in various soil condition consists of a source to generate seismic wave, receiver with proper coupling and frequency response and a 12-channel recording device. The source used in Cross-Hole method to generate identifiable seismic wave is a mechanical source, borehole shear wave hammer, which is repeatable, reversible and rich in creating of shear wave. This hammer which is developed to be used for Cross-Hole testing in this study can be coupled to the borehole wall by hydraulically expandable plates. These plates are pressed towards to borehole wall so that a falling weight can be hit the baseplate from top and bottom. Thus, shear wave can be produced in direction perpendicular to the borehole axis. Three component velocity transducers (borehole geophones) which are housed in one case and oriented to direction of one vertical and two horizontal have been used as receivers in both Cross-Hole and Down-Hole measurements in this study. The natural frequency of the receivers is 28 Hz. With borehole wall pressing system the geophones can be fixed at optional of borehole by expanding packer tube by means of air pressure. Two types of seismographs, analog and digital, had been used as recording system during case studies. At first in-situ applications for seismic wave velocity measurement had been performed by using surface refraction method at the location field of Istanbul Technical University Campus, Ayazağa, with the analog seismographs used for recording waveform. This IXdevice has 12 channels and waveform are recorded directly on special recording paper which is sensitive to the sun-light, and Xenon flash is used for timing. It is difficult to utilize seismic measurement using this analog seismograph because its triggering system does not automatically and simultaneously operate with the impulse given for generation wave. In this tests, a steel plate on the soil surface and a vertical impulse with the help of a sledge hammer had been utilized for the wave source. A transducer was mounted on this plate for the triggering system of seismograph. Immediately before the impulse activates, the seismograph is operated by driving the record paper at a selected sweep rate, and waveform is recorded. But the triggering system of multichannel digital seismograph starts the recording automatically, device as soon as impulse activates. Enhancement of signal to noise ratio is accomplished by its signal enhancement and digital stacking function. There are some advantages of using this type of instrument. Lower energy impacts can be used to generate the seismic wave, and survey can be performed for much greater distances using mechanical source. By utilizing signal enhancement unit, the impact for generating the wave can be repeated a number of times, so eliminating the errors present in timing a single impulse and effects of undesirable noise in waveform traces. Continuous confirmation feasible with waveform data can be stored in its memory and waveform can be displayed on the screen and printed on the special recording paper in variable modes. Obtained data is recordable in the computer by means of RS-232 data transmission. The data are transferred to the computer from the seismograph by a transfer computer code written for this study. This computer code can also be used to analyze the signal records for determining the first arrival time. Signal analysis of seismic waveform basically involves the determination of direct travel times for compression and shear waves by identifying characteristic point from the traces. The time between this characteristic point and zero time determined by the triggering system equals to direct travel time. If first arrivals of certain wave type at more than one point from the source are known then interval time or interval velocity can be calculated. The initial compression wave arrival at each trace is identified as the first excursion, while initial shear wave arrival is identified as the first high amplitude excursion. The Cross-Hole and Down-hole seismic methods set up for this study had been widely used for measuring shear and compression wave velocities at different sites. In the tests performed at the Campus of Technical University, three boreholes had been drilled, cased and grouted. Shear and compression wave velocity profiles had been determined and initial shear modulus (Gmax) and Poisson's Ra-tio calculated from these seismic wave values, including in-situ material damping ratio. Besides of in-situ measurements, laboratory tests of ultrasound and resonant frequency were performed on soil samples obtained from the boreholes. Determination of low amplitude material damping ratio is an important field measurement. Seismic wave amplitudes decay due to both geometrical damping and material damping while propagating within the soil. For geotechnical engineering applications material damping is expressed in terms of the damping ratio as the following relation; D=[ln(A1R1/A2R2)]/{(27rtI/T)2+[ln(A1R1/A2R2)]2}0.5 (4) xWhere D is damping ratio, Aj and A2 are the amplitudes of same characteristic points on waveform at distances Rj and R2 from the wave source, tj is the interval time between Rj and R2, T is the period of the wave. In order to determine the damping ratio by using this equation, it is necessary to measure the wave amplitudes at least at two receiver points from the same source. For damping measurements performed at the campus site, frequency of receivers and the coupling of two receivers are the same so that receiver output is not affected. The time domain wave amplitudes in the field were measured by using Down-Hole seismic tests. Wave amplitudes generated from the same source impulse were simultaneously observed at two receivers in the same borehole. The equipments used in damping measurements consist of a source, receivers and a recording device, as in wave velocity measurements. The damping ratio were also measured on soil samples in the laboratory by resonant frequency test. In comparison of field and laboratory measurements, it is noticed that the results of each measurement are different due to the soil sample disturbance, nonrepresentative samples and inabilities in reproducing in-situ stress conditions. After March 13, 1992 Erzincan earthquake, a detailed site investigation were carried out utilizing Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT), Dynamic Penetration Test (DPT). For determining the dynamic soil properties Down-Hole and Cross-Hole seismic wave velocity measurements techniques were carried out in cased and grouted ten boreholes. Erzincan is located on a deep alluvial deposit layer formed with debris materials transported from the Fırat River and mountains around. The North Anatolian Fault zone is north of the Erzincan basin. The basin is filled mostly with silts, sands and gravels. Borehole data indicate sand and gravel series with small amount of silt and clay, and the layers are not continuous between different boreholes. The soil profile consists of alternating layers of silty sands, sandy gravels, gravelly sands and in some locations silty sandy clays. A dense, partly cemented gravel layer at depths of 4-5 m at the north and at depths 15-20 m at the south part of Erzincan had been observed. According to the results of various in-situ tests performed in Erzincan, the seismic wave velocities variation with SPT-N value, CPT qc tip resistance and dynamic penetration test results were studied and some correlations were obtained. The SPT-N values that' are greater than 120 and less than 1 were not taken into account but, on the other hand, SPT-N values for all kinds of soils were included in the regression analysis both without any correction and with depth-corrected value. A correlation with high regression coefficient between SPT-N and shear wave velocity were obtained. In comparison with the previous studies, the correlations obtained in this study rather overestimate shear wave velocity values for SPT-N greater than 20. This difference is most likely due to the variation in SPT techniques incorporated and gravelly nature of soil layers. The correlation between shear wave and depth-corrected SPT-N value, (Nj), had been found to be lower than the between shear wave and SPT-N. On the other hand, when the effective overburden stress was taken into account, the correlation between shear wave and depth-corrected SPT-N became higher. XIOther parameters, in addition to those described herein, were thought to influence shear wave velocity correlations. These parameters include soil type, mean grain size, (D50), effective overburden stress and depth. The variation of shear wave velocity with SPT-N, overburden stress and soil type had also been studied. The soil type was divided into three groups named as clay, sand and gravel. The results of the analysis gave the highest correlation coefficient for clay while the lowest coefficient was obtained in gravel. Besides of differences in correlation coefficients, for the same SPT-N value and vertical effective stress generally the same shear wave velocity had been evaluated from the correlations for all soil types, clays and sands. In the correlation analysis, mean grain size (D50) were also be taken as an input variable and it was found that as D50 values became higher, greater shear wave velocity were observed. So it can be said that as the grain size increases, the calculated shear wave velocity become larger. This fact is justified by higher shear wave velocity values obtained from gravels. When vertical effective stress was taken into account, the coefficient of correlation between shear wave and D50 found higher than the other. The variation of shear wave velocity with CPT-qc tip resistance and Dynamic Penetration Test (DPT) blow account had also been studied and some correlation equations were established. Since qc values are measured with depth at interval of few centimeters, the average of qc values were used in the obtaining correlation between shear wave velocity and CPT qc tip resistance. Both linear and nonlinear regression analyses were performed on the data set obtained for all kind of soil types. The coefficient of correlation between shear wave velocity and - qc tip resistance was found to be improved when effective overburden stress were utilized, as in correlation between shear wave velocity and SPT-N value. The correlations equations and coefficients obtained for shear and compression wave velocities in terms of selected variables are summarized in Table 1. Also the correlation compression wave velocity and mentioned variables was studied and it was found that compression wave has lower correlations than the shear wave. The results of the correlation analysis made between equations and coefficients compression wave velocity and other variables are given in Table 2. Another correlations considered in this study the correlations among in- situ penetration tests such as SPT, CPT and Dynamic Penetration Test performed in Erzincan during field investigation. Possible correlations among penetration resistances of these tests were examined. The correlations between SPT-DPT, CPT-DPT and CPT-SPT were found to be noticeable. The highest correlation was obtained between SPT and DPT tests results. The correlation equations and coefficients for In-situ tests are shown in Table 3. Correlations used to estimate seismic velocity should not be thought of as a substitute for in-situ seismic measurements. However, these correlation equations can be useful to justify the measured values of wave velocity or to use in conjunction with a seismic testing program under certain controlled field condition. XllTable 1. Correlation Equations and Coefficients Obtained in This Study for Shear Wave Velocity (Vs) In these tables, Vs is shear wave velocity in m/sn unit, N is the Standard Penetration Test blow count (SPT-N), av is effective overburden stress in t/m2 unit, D50 is average grain size in mm unit, Nj is depth-corrected SPT-N value, qc is Cone Penetration Test tip resistance in kg/cm2, N10 is the Dynamic Penetration Test blow count for 10 cm penetration, and H is depth in m unit. XXllTable 2. Correlation Equations and Coefficients Established in this Study for Compression Wave Velocity (Vp) In table Vp indicates to compression wave velocity in m/sn unit, and others are the same as in in Table 1. Table 3. The Correlation Equations and Coefficients For In-situ Tests. ?xi V 255

Katı atıklar içerisinde yer alan kentsel, endüstriyel ve inşaat yıkım atık miktarı her yıl endişe verici bir oranda artmaktadır. Üretilen inşaat kaynaklı katı atık miktarı dünya ülkelerinde gelişmişlik düzeyine ve nüfusuna bağlı olarak değişmektedir. İnşaat yapım yıkım atıkları Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti'nde her yıl toplam katı atığın %30-40'ını oluştururken, 2016'da İngiltere'de üretilen toplam katı atıkların %61'ini oluşturmuştur. 2015 yılında Amerika Birleşik Devletleri (ABD) Çevre Koruma Ajansı (EPA) ABD'de üretilen inşaat yapım ve yıkım atık miktarının, üretilen belediye katı atıklarının iki katından fazlasına karşılık geldiğini ve bu miktarın yaklaşık 548 milyon ton olduğunu belirtmiştir. Ülkemizde ise başlayan kentsel dönüşüm projeleri ile her yıl yüksek miktarlarda inşaat atığı oluştuğu tahmin edilmektedir. 2012 yılında başlayan, eski ve sismik hasara duyarlı yapıların yıkılmasını içeren kentsel dönüşüm projesine rağmen geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregası üretim miktarı ve çeşitli uygulamalarda kullanım oranı tam olarak belirlenememiştir. Bununla birlikte, artan çevre bilinci ve kurulu tesisler ile geri dönüştürülmüş agregaların kullanım oranının artması beklenmektedir.Depolanan inşaat yapım ve yıkım atık miktarındaki artış ve doğal kaynakların hızlı bir şekilde azalması nedeniyle, inşaat mühendisliği uygulamalarında atık malzemelerin kullanılması özellikle son on yılda büyük önem kazanmıştır. İnşaat atıklarından elde edilen, çoğunlukla geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregası olarak adlandırılan beton atıklarının yeniden kullanılmasının doğal kaynak kullanımını azaltacağı ve atık depolama sorununa bir çözüm sağlayacağı yaygın olarak kabul edilmektedir. Sürdürülebilirliğe katkı sağlamak amacıyla geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregaları özellikle yüksek miktarda doğal kaynak tüketimine sebep olan yol dolgusu uygulamalarında geniş bir kullanım alanı bulmuştur.Mühendislik uygulamalarında kullanılacak geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregalarının mühendislik özelliklerini doğru bir şekilde değerlendirmek önemli olup, bu malzemelerin mühendislik özellikleri elde edilen kaynağa bağlı olarak değişmektedir. Ülkemizde oluşan geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregalarının mühendislik özellikleri hakkında literatürde sınırlı sayıda bilgi yer almaktadır. Bununla beraber farklı kaynaklardan temin edilen geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregaları kullanılmadan önce esas alınan şartnamede belirtilen geoteknik özellikleri ile diğer mühendislik özellikleri belirlenmeli ve kullanım uygunluğu tespit edilmelidir. Bu çalışmada İstanbul'daki Kentsel Dönüşüm Projelerinden elde edilen ve Göktürk'te geri dönüşüm tesisinde depolanan beton atıkları kullanılmış, yol alt temel ve temel malzemesi olarak kullanım uygunluğu geoteknik açıdan ele alınmıştır. Bu amaçla tesisten temin edilen geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregası üzerinde laboratuvarda standart zemin mekaniği deneyleri yapılmıştır.Tesisten temin edilen geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregası üzerinde ilk olarak ASTM D-422'ye göre elek ile hidrometre analizleri yapılmış ve Birleştirilmiş Zemin Sınıflandırma Sistemine göre malzeme Siltli Kum (SM) olarak belirlenmiştir. Ülkemizde yol dolguları alt temel ve temel tabakasında kullanılacak malzemelerinin sağlaması gereken geoteknik özellikler Karayolu Teknik Şartnamesinde (KTŞ, 2013) belirtilmiş olup, tesisten temin edilen geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregasının dane çapı dağılımının KTŞ'de alt temel ve temel malzemeleri için belirtilen dane çapı dağılım sınırlarının dışında kaldığı tespit edilmiştir. KTŞ'de alt temel ve temel tabakası dane çapı dağılımı için belirtilen üst ve alt limitler göz önüne alınarak farklı dane çapı dağılımına sahip alt temel ve temel numuneleri hazırlanmıştır. Hazırlanan alt temel ve temel numuneleri üzerinde yapılan deneyler dane çapı dağılımı şartname limitleri dışında kalmasına rağmen tesis numunesi üzerinde de yapılmıştır. Numunelerin kompaksiyon özelliklerini belirlemek için Standart ve Modifiye Proctor, Islak ve Kuru California Taşıma Oranı (CBR) değerleri ile geçirimlilik özelliklerini belirlemek için Kuru ve Yaş CBR ile Sabit Seviyeli Permeabilite ve esneklik özelliklerini belirlemek için Esneklik Modülü deneyleri yapılmıştır.Geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregalarının kullanım uygunluğu belirlenirken bölgedeki iklim koşulları da büyük önem taşımaktadır. Geoteknik mühendisliğinin inceleme konuları arasında ayrı olarak ele alınan donma çözülme olayı ülkemizin iklim koşulları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda yol dolgularında kullanılacak geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregaları için de ele alması gereken bir problem haline gelmiştir. Donma çözülme olaylarının sık görüldüğü yerlerde geri dönüştürülmüş beton agregaların mukavemet özellikleri değişmektedir. Donma çözülme çevrimleri sonrası mukavemet özelliklerindeki değişimi belirlemek amacıyla hazırlanan alt temel ve temel numuneleri farklı sayılarda donma çözülme çevrimlerine maruz bırakılmış ve donma çözülme sonrası mukavemet özelliklerindeki değişim CBR değerlerindeki değişim ele alınarak belirlenmiştir.Geoteknik deneylerde bulunan değerler Karayolu Teknik Şartnamesinde (KTŞ, 2013) alt temel ve temel malzemesi için istenen sınır değerler ile karşılaştırılmış ve geoteknik açıdan şartname limitlerini sağladığı belirlenmiştir. Donma çözülme sonrası elde edilen CBR değerlerinin ise şartnamede belirtilen sınır değerleri sağlamamasından dolayı don olaylarının görüldüğü bölgelerde bu malzemelerin doğal agrega ile karıştırılarak, katkı maddesi eklenerek veya geosentetik kullanarak mukavemet özelliklerinin iyileştirilip kullanılması önerilmektedir. The amount of annually produced municipal, industrial and construction solid waste has been increasing at an alarming rate. In particular, large amount construction and demolition (C&D) waste deposited in landfills worldwide. It is a well-known fact that development level and movement to urban areas are linked to the generation of construction and demolition waste. C&D waste accounts almost for 30-40% of the total solid waste in the People's Republic of China every year, C&D waste accounted for 61% of total generated solid wastes in the United Kingdom (UK) in 2016. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stated that the amount of C&D waste produced in the United States (US) was 548 million tons, corresponding to more than twice the amount of municipal solid waste generated in US which emphasizes the need to find alternative ways of utilizing them. Due to dramatic increase in the stockpiled amount of construction and demolition waste and rapid diminishment of natural resources, using waste materials in civil engineering applications has come into importance particularly in the last decade. Highway constructions may be deemed as a suitable application since large volumes of materials might be utilized. The satisfactory mechanical properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) enables using it as a pavement base or subbase material. Several countries have been using recycled C&D materials as a high-value construction material in civil engineering applications It is widely accepted that the reuse of concrete wastes, mostly referred as Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA), obtained from C&D waste will reduce the use of natural resources and will provide a solution to the problem of waste storage.Turkey is a country where the urban transformation project was initiated in 2012, however, concrete aggregates derived from construction waste in Turkey was not used up to now as a subbase or base materials in the pavement. Despite the urban transformation project that started in 2012 and includes demolishing of the old and seismic damage-susceptible structures, neither the generation amount of RCA nor utilization rate in various applications has been fully determined. However, the utilization ratio is expected to increase with increasing environmental awareness and installed facilities, and in this case, it is important to correctly assess the characteristics of the RCA materials to be used. In addition, there is very little information about the geotechnical properties of these materials. The results of the research studies carried out in recent decades made it possible to utilize RCA as subbase and base materials of the pavement. However, the results of the previous research studies have shown that the both engineering properties of RCA are strictly dependent on the origin. Therefore, in this thesis utilization of RCA from Istanbul, as subbase or base layer in the highways was evaluated through a series of geotechnical laboratory tests. In this study, RCA obtained from C&D wastes in Istanbul were utilized. The RCA material was collected from a plant in Istanbul Gokturk region and sorted with respect to its particle size.In order to determine the physical properties of the RCA, grain size distributions were determined and then Proctor, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Constant Head and Resilient Modulus (RMT) Tests were performed respectively. In addition to, when determining the suitability of use of recycled concrete aggregates, the climatic conditions in the region have great importance. Strength properties of recycled concrete aggregates where frost events are common should be reevaluated by taking these conditions. It should be noted that recycled concrete aggregates designated as usable for the subbase and base layer can lose their suitability after freeze-thaw. Therefore, strength losses were determined by using CBR test on prepared subbase and base samples that completed the freeze-thaw cycle.Sieve and hydrometer analyses were performed on the as-received material according to ASTM D-422. The material was classified as Silty Sand (SM) using the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). Once the particle size distribution characteristics of the as-received material have been determined, the suitability of utilization in as- received condition was investigated. However, when Turkey's General Directorate of Highways (KGM) Highway Technical Specification (KTS), which show upper and lower limits for grain diameter distribution of subbase and base material are investigated, it is seen that as-received RCA grain size distribution is out of these limits. Thus, two different grain size distributions were prepared for subbase and base materials considering Highway Technical Specification (KTS) upper and lower limits.Standard and modified compaction tests were performed in accordance with ASTMD- 698 and ASTM D-1557, respectively. The results of the standard compaction test on the as-received material yielded an optimum moisture content (wopt) of 13% and a maximum dry unit weight (γdry,max) of 19.3 kN/m3, whereas the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry unit weight obtained by applying modified compaction energy to the same material was 9% and 19.7 kN/m3, Since the material remaining on the 19.0 mm sieve was less than 10% in both the subbase and base layer grain size distributions, Method C was used for Standard and Modified Proctor Test. The samples were compacted as 3 layers in a 152.4 mm diameter mold with 24.5 N rammer and, the rammer was dropped 56 times from 305 mm for Standard Proctor Test. For the Modified Proctor Test, the material was compacted as 5 layers using a 152.4 mm diameter mold and the rammer was dropped 56 times. respectively. The standard compaction test results for subbase materials show that maximum dry unit weight is 19.40 kN/m3 and optimum water content is 11%. Due to increasing energy in the modified compaction Test, the maximum dry unit weight was found to be 19.80 kN/m3 and the optimum water content was obtained as 8%. Similarly, for base composition, the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content under standard compaction effort was 20.10 kN/m3 and 10%, respectively, whereas when modified compaction test was performed, the optimum moisture content decreased to 7% and maximum dry unit volume weight increased to 20.50 kN/m3. The higher dry unit weight and lower optimum moisture content of base material under both standard and modified compaction energies compared with subbase material can be attributed to coarser particle size distribution of the base material.CBR test is used to determine the materials CBR value and to evaluate their suitability as subbase and base course material. Standard or modified compressed samples are used to determine the CBR value in the laboratory and, it is aimed to evaluate the strength of the material having a particle size of smaller than 3/4 inches (19 mm). The subbase and base samples were compacted in a CBR mold (7-inch high and 6-inch diameter) at maximum dry unit weight obtained from the modified compaction test.The test was performed in both dry and wet conditions to evaluate the strength properties under drought and heavy precipitation. In dry condition, the sample was subjected to CBR test immediately after compaction whereas for wet condition, the sample was kept soaked for 3 days and the vertical deformation was measured constantly via a dial gauge. The sample was subjected to loading once the vertical displacement was stabilized. In order to perform the test, the tests were performed at a strain rate of 1.27 mm/min using a loading frame with a maximum loading capacity of 45 kN. The dry CBR value at the optimum water content of the as-received material was 76% and the wet CBR value was 79%. The dry and wet CBR values of the base layer were found as 133% and 121%, respectively. On the other hand; the dry and wet CBR values of the subbase layer obtained %109 and %106. In all cases, the CBR value is significantly higher than 50, a generally accepted global limit for base materials. The higher CBR values for wet condition can be attributed to the potential reaction of anhydrate cement in the concrete aggregate when exposed to water. It is thought that the higher CBR value of the base layer both in wet and dry conditions is caused by a better packing of the sample and minimization of voids. With increasing percentage of coarse material, the amount of load to be applied for 5 mm and 2.5 mm penetration increased significantly. The required CBR value for the subbase layers for the KTS in Turkey is minimum 30 for Type A and the CBR value (wet CBR = 121%) of the sample prepared considering Type A boundary grain size distribution is significantly higher. This fact once again emphasizes the need to perform tests when using RCA since the wide range of index and strength properties exhibited by the materials heavily depend on the origin. The hydraulic conductivity is one of the most complicated and important properties of soils, since it is heavily affected by other factors, however, it needs to be determined in particular for materials to be used in road pavements, bases or subbases. The constant-head test method is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity for the laminar flow of water through granular soils in embankments or base courses under pavements. In order to determine the hydraulic conductivity, RCA samples for subbase and base were prepared in accordance with ASTM D-2434. The test was triplicated for each sample and was repeated on different hydraulic gradients. The results indicate that the hydraulic conductivities of all materials are within the same order of magnitude. The average hydraulic conductivity of as-received material was found to be 8.86x10-5 cm/s. The prepared subbase and base samples have a slightly lower permeability than the as-received sample. This result can be explained by the fact that the prepared sample has a better gradation and a packing, hence a lower void ratio.Resilient Modulus test (RMT) is used to determine of resilient modulus (MR) under conditions representing the stress states of base/subbase materials beneath flexible pavements subjected to moving wheel loads. According to AASHTO T-307 as-received, base and subbase samples were subjected to resilient modulus test. Prior to loading, the type of material is determined based on the grain size distribution. Since the passing material through the sieves No.10 (2.00 mm) and No.200 (0.075 mm) is less than 70% and 20% respectively, both subbase and base RCA were classified as Type-1. Thus, all materials were compacted in six layers at their optimum moisture contents and maximum dry unit weights based on modified compaction test results. The test was conducted via external linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) with a measurement capacity of 50.8 mm, a Geocomp LoadTrac-II loading frame and associated with hydraulic power unit system. The conditioning stage was performed on the specimens under the same confining and axial stress of 103 kPa for 500 repetitions.Once proceeded to the actual loading stage, the confining stress was varied between 20.7 and 138 kPa during loading stages with 100 repetitions applied at each stage. Resilient modulus 6.0 software was used to keep track of the loading. The last five repetitions of each stage were used to calculate the resilient modulus of each corresponding stage. The value of resilient modulus is a measure of the elastic modulus of base and subbase materials having certain nonlinear characteristics. For calculation of the resilient modulus, Bulk Stress Model and Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) were used. The resilient modulus test (RMT) results showed that there is a linear relationship between the bulk stress and the MR as reported in previous studies. When the MEPD Model Parameters are analyzed, it is seen that there is not much difference between the regression coefficients (k1, k2, k3) of all samples, but the correlation coefficient is close to 1 for all square values. Using regression coefficients for the as-received sample, under the 34.5 kPa (5 psi) confining stress and 103.4 kPa deviator stress, resilient modulus was calculated as 143.8 MPa according to the MEPD Model, and for the base and subbase samples this value was found to be 154.3 MPa and 128.7 MPa respectively.In the last part of the laboratory study, the subbase and base samples, whose geotechnical properties were determined by taking into consideration the KTS, were subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. The freeze-thaw cycle numbers were chosen 1-3-5- 10 and 20. When preparing samples for freeze-thaw cycles, special plastic mold (same dimensions with CBR mold) and vibratory compression device was used. In order to observe the changes in CBR values after freeze and thaw cycles, subbase and base samples were prepared at the maximum dry unit volume weight obtained in the Modified Proctor experiment. The samples were compressed in 5 layers with an energy equivalent to the modified proctor compression energy during the vibration time determined before the experiment. The samples were compacted in molds made in CBR mold sizes in order to minimize the shaking of the samples during carriage during freeze-thaw cycles. To make comparison, CBR experiments were performed on subbase and base samples which was not subjected to freeze-thaw cycle and prepared by vibration device in plastic mold. CBR values before and after freeze thaw cycles were determined and the suitability of use was re-evaluated considering the effect of freeze thaw on CBR value. CBR values after 1-3-5-20-20 freeze and thaw cycles were determined to be below the limit values specified for the aggregates to be used in the subbase and foundation layer of the Highways Technical Specification. After the freezing and thawing cycles, the change in CBR values was determined and the suitability of use in the regions where the climatic conditions were variable and frost events were discussed separately in terms of strength properties. In order to meet the limits of the CBR values falling after the freezing and thawing cycles, it is recommended to mix the natural aggregate or using geosynthetics.In conclusion, the use of recycled concrete aggregate obtained from the plant in the prepared subbase and base layer is suitable in terms of geotechnics. However, other engineering features should be determined before being used by the relevant civil engineering applications and their conformity with the values specified in the Technical Specifications of the Highways should be indicate. 138

Kırsal kesimlerden şehir merkezlerine göçün artmasıyla, şehir içlerinde trafik yoğunlaşmış, ulaşım ihtiyacı da bununla beraber artmış, metro, tünel, tramvay, otobüs, araba gibi demiryoluyla ve karayoluyla ulaşımı sağlayan araçlar için daha fazla yol inşa edilmesi zorunlu hale gelmiştir. Yollar yapılırken yeraltı yapısı olan tüneller, özellikle kamulaştırma problemlerinin de önüne geçtiği için şehir merkezlerinde, yapıların yoğun olduğu bölgelerde oldukça tercih edilmektedir. Fakat bu tüneller, açıldıkları bölgelerde tünel üzerindeki yüzeyde bulunan yol, bina, cami gibi yapılarda yerel zemin koşullarına, kayanın süreksizlik durumuna ve yeraltı suyu gibi durumlara bağlı olarak deplasmanlara neden olabilmektedirler. Deplasman miktarlarının artması, yapılarda göçmelere neden olabilmektedir. Oluşan deplasmanların miktarları önceden tahmin edilir ve düzenli ölçümlerle de takibi yapılırsa yapılarda oluşabilecek göçme problemlerinin ve dolayısıyla can ve mal kayıplarının önüne geçilebilmektedir. Bu bakımdan İstanbul grovaklarında Yeni Avusturya Tünel Açma Yöntemi (NATM) ile açılan ikiz karayolu tünellerinin inşaatı nedeniyle tünel üzerindeki yapılarda oluşan deplasmanların düzenli ölçümler sonucunda elde edilen miktarları, yerel zemin koşullarına bağlı olarak incelenmiştir. İlk olarak tünellerin farklı kazı aşamalarının ayrı ayrı neden olduğu deplasmanların miktarları incelenmiş, miktarlar arasında herhangi bir bağlantı olup olmadığı tespit edilmiş ve aralarında tünel çapının 2 katı kadar mesafe bulunan iki tünelin birbiri üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmıştır. Daha sonra literatürde bulunan dönüm noktasının tünel eksenine olan mesafesinin (i) 3 ayrı zemin türü (iri daneli, karışık ve ortalama) için bağıntıları kullanılarak hesaplanan teorik deplasman miktarları ile yapıların köşe noktalarında oluşan deplasmanların sahadan alınan gerçek miktarları karşılaştırılmış, İstanbul grovaklarında açılan tüneller için hangi i bağıntısının daha uygun olabileceği tartışılmıştır. Son olarak, Alibeyköy/İstanbul'da inşa edilmekte olan Cebeci Tüneli'nin Alibeyköy Bölgesi üzerinde bina köşe noktalarında düzenli olarak ölçülen yüzey deplasman miktarları, proje verileri ve tünelin açılarak içinden geçtiği zemin profili kullanılarak pratik amaçlar doğrultusunda yüzeyde oluşan deplasmanları tahmin edebilmek, can ve mal kayıplarını en aza indirebilmek amacıyla örtü yüküne bağlı olarak tünel dönüm noktasının tünel merkezlerine olan mesafesini hesaplayabilen ampirik bir bağıntı İstanbul grovakları için elde edilmiştir. Population increases have been experienced as a result of rapid urbanization due to migration from rural areas to big cities. Because of increasing population of people living in the cities, number of structures increases day by day. Due to the packness and traffic density in the city centers, a part of the population had to be moved out of the city. Because of that reason, a necessity for transportation in order to gain time for people, shorten distances and thus save fuel, which is an expensive matter today. There is an increasing need for tunnel construction which is aimed at meeting the social needs such as shelter, storage and defense, especially transportation, and with the effect of ground and topography conditions. Generally, it is not economically and technically feasible to construct highway and roads through such regions where there are dwellings, workplaces, schools, historical buildings, in other words, where urbanization is quite intense. Therefore, in recent years, due to increase metro, highway, rail system projects in our country, the need for highway and railway tunnels has increased considerably in cities. With the increasing necessity of tunnels, tunneling has become compulsory due to developing technology and tunneling methods have improved from past to present. One of these methods, the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM), was created by Rabcewicz in 1946, based on the principle of rock transport to the rock, which is still widely used today, which can be opened in variable section areas, applicable to unexpected geological profiles encountered during excavation and whose supports like bolt, shotcrete, umbrella arch method can easily be changed accordingly. Although this method is mostly applied in tunnels on weak ground, NATM is applicable for both cohesive and non-cohesive soil and has a wide area of choosing tunneling method. The method has become widespread all over the world in a short period of time because it can easily adapt to any kind of tunnel geometry and ground conditions. NATM has its own rules and preserving the natural strength of the rock, the regular support system and the covering of the shell with shotcrete is one of these rules. It is one of the important rules to measure the deformations regularly by using geodetic and geotechnical methods in the tunnel and in the surface area and to evaluate the results by comparing the design with the calculations. This principle provides information about the deformation that may occur in the tunnel and ground surface. Tunnel and surface movements created by tunnel construction stages are inevitable. In addition, the tunnel may cause horizontal and vertical displacements on the surface during and after construction. As a result of these displacements, structures and roads may be damaged. These damages can be avoided by prediction of structures and road settlements. This can be achieved with the help of an empirical correlation which is easy to apply in the site, practical and suitable for the Istanbul graywackes. Thus, the structural collapses on the surface can be prevented and the damages, loss of lifes and properties because of the tunnel construction can be minimized. In this study, the measured settlements in the areas of the tunnel interaction caused by twin tunnels opened in the city by the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) were examined and the trough width parameter, which is one of the parameters defining the magnitude of settlements was observed. It is aimed to obtain an empirical correlation of trough width parameter for twin tunnels opened by NATM in Istanbul graywackes. Thus, the center of the twin tunnels, where regular surface measurements were made, were determined as the central axis and buildings 80 m to the left and right from this axis were selected for analysis. In a study conducted for a region where the tunnel progressed 500 meters, this distance was divided into 10 sections according to the density of the structure and each section was analyzed statistically in itself and the effect of tunnel excavation stages on surface settlements was tried to be obtained by comparing these analyses. Although in the site, there are drillings and laboratory tests which are determine local conditions and geotechnical properties of the layers (cohesion, modulus of elasticity, poisson ratio, uniaxial compressive strength, natural unit volume weight), by using the data obtained from the field tests, empirical correlation was tried to be obtained for trough width parameter which will be used in settlement quantity caused by twin tunnels in İstanbul graywackes.In this study, where the displacements caused by twin tunnels opened by NATM are examined, firstly general information about the subject of the thesis is given and the purpose of the thesis formation and the statistical analysis and results of this thesis are mentioned. In the second part of the study, the concept of tunnel, the purposes of the tunnels, the excavation methods depending on the type of the ground was introduced, the development of the tunnels from the past to the present, various tunneling methods are explained and the positive and negative aspects of these methods are mentioned. In the third part of the study, taking into account the various parameters of the rocks, Terzaghi is mainly classified according to certain characteristics of the rocks and the most commonly used rock classification and support systems are explained. In section 4, the New Austrian Tunneling Method which is widely used in our country is explained in detail, NATM rock classification is given and the excavation methods, support systems and the positive and negative sides of this method are explained. In the fifth section of this study, the measurement methods used in the tunnel and on the surface, where the direction of movement and the quantity of the displacements are determined are explained. In the sixth part of the study, the geometric properties of the tunnel used in the study, the local soil conditions and geological structure, the stages of tunnel excavation, the relationship between tunnel excavation and surface settlement quantities are explained and the development of an empirical correlation for the Istanbul graywackes is discussed. In this study, real values are used, parametric study and numerical analysis methods are excluded. In the last part of the study, the displacement evaluations of the buildings and the results of the statistical analysis have been mentioned and various suggestions have been made. The short-term displacement amounts of each excavation stage were examined and it was concluded that there was no relationship between the quantities or percentages of these displacements, that different excavations in each cross-section caused independent displacements and that these amounts could not be attributed to a certain increase percentage. The reason for this can be explained as the drilling velocities of the tunnel, the variability of the times between the support systems and the condition of the ground. Parameter values obtained from field experiments were used to obtain surface settlements using the proposed correlations, the results overlap with the actual values, the calculation was changed by using the parameters obtained from laboratory experiments and it was found that the settlements were different from the actual settlements. Besides, it was found that the displacement of the second tube did not cause any displacement on the first tube, and that the surface displacement amounts of the structures on the respective tubes did not increase due to the excavation in the other tube. It is concluded that the tunnels had no effect on each other due to construction of the tunnels in the rock environment and distance between the axes of the two tunnels being about 2 times the tunnel diameters. In addition, it was found that the maximum displacement on the surface did not occur on the left tube or the right tube, but rather on the central axis located in the middle of two tunnel axes and on the curve obtained by superposing. As a result, it is recommended to carry out the geotechnical measurements in the tunnel at regular intervals, to increase the quality of the measurements taken, to reduce the error rates, to increase the measurement quality by increasing the measurement intervals. In order to determine the properties of soils in displacement predictions, it is recommended to observe soil survey and use field tests. Finally, by using the actual displacement values measured in twin tunnels drilled in the Istanbul graywackes with NATM, a correlation is proposed to estimate the displacements on the surface depending on the distance of the tunnel axis to the surface for practical purposes. 198

Günümüzde; nüfus artışının neden olduğu şehir içi alanlarının daralması ve yeni yerleşim yerlerinin hız kesmeden inşa edilmesi, yer üstünün olduğu kadar yeraltınında kullanımını kaçınılmaz kılmaktadır. Teknolojide meydana gelen hızlı gelişmeler, inşaat sektöründe uygulanan yöntemlerin ve çözüm yollarının da gelişmesini sağlamıştır. Bu gelişmelerin en etkili olduğu alanlardan birisi de yeraltı yapıları ve tünelcilik çözümleri olmaktadır. Ulaşım sektöründe karayolu ve demiryolu güzergâhlarının bir kısmının, metro projelerinin ise büyük bir bölümünün tüneller ile yeraltından geçirilmesi bu çözümler içerisinde yer almaktadır. Kaya mekaniğinde ve zemin mekaniğinde yapılan araştırmalar klasik tünelcilik anlayışını değiştirmiş, yaklaşık yetmiş yıldır birçok projede başarılı bir şekilde uygulanmış olan Yeni Avusturya Tünel Açma Yönteminin (NATM) doğmasını ve sürekli gelişmesini sağlamıştır. Eski sistemlere göre daha uygulanabilir ve denetlenebilir olan bu sistemlerin modellenmesinde ve çözümlenmesinde çeşitli bilgisayar programlarından yararlanılmakta, böylelikle sonuçlara daha hızlı ve doğru şekilde ulaşılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, İstanbul'da Çekmeköy ile Üsküdar arasında yapımı tamamlanan tünel güzergahı üzerinde, kil zeminde Yeni Avusturya Tünel Açma Yöntemi - NATM ile inşa edilen makas ve peron tünelleri incelenmiştir. Çalışma kapsamında, öncelikle tünel güzergâhının ilgili kesimleri jeolojik ve geoteknik açıdan değerlendirilmiştir. Yapılan sondajlar ve laboratuvar deneyleri sonuçlarına göre makas ve peron tüneli yerleşim alanında yer alan jeolojik birimler tanımlanmış, bu birimlere ait yerinde zeminlerin geoteknik parametreleri belirlenmiştir. NATM esasları gözetilerek inşa edilen bu tünellerin yapımı sırasında geoteknik ölçümlerle yapılmış, tünel içinde ve zemin yüzeyinde oluşan hareketler incelenmiştir. Analizler sonucunda, tünelin yapımı sırasında yüzeyde meydana gelebilecek oturmaların pratik amaçlar doğrultusunda tahmini için bir bağıntı elde edilmiş, önceki çalışmalarla karşılaştırılmıştır. Kontrol ölçümlerinden yola çıkarak yüzeyde meydana gelebilecek oturmaların tahmini için yeni bağıntılar oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Today; The contraction of urban areas caused by population growth and the construction of new settlements without slowing down makes it inevitable to use underground as well as above ground. The rapid developments in technology have led to the development of methods and solutions applied in the construction sector. One of the most effective areas of these developments is underground structures and tunneling solutions. In the transportation sector, tunneling of some of the highway and railway routes and most of the underground projects through tunnels are among these solutions. Research in rock mechanics and soil mechanics has changed the understanding of classical tunneling and has led to the emergence and continuous development of the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM), which has been successfully applied in many projects for nearly seventy years. In the modelling and analysis of new methods of construction the use of computer aided design methods enabled to reach rapid and accurate solutions which made these new technologies more easily applicable and monitorable. One of the major problems in developing and developed cities in the world and in our country is transportation problems in those cities. The construction of metro lines, which is one of the most effective solutions to these problems, has been continuing in recent years with an increasing acceleration in our country even though it is late. With the introduction of Taksim - 4.Levent metro in late 2000, the importance of the metro in public transportation was understood and in the following years, tram lines, which are referred to as light rail subway systems, were put into service.After the construction of the subway, the Kadıköy-Kartal Metro, Başakşehir-Olympic-Kirazlı Metro, the extension of the existing subway lines and the tender process have been completed and the new subway lines have been rapidly growing.Construction of metro lines in Istanbul, especially in areas where construction is frequent, requires detailed and qualified research, examination and measurement. During urban tunnel excavations, the behavior of the ground and its effects on the superstructures are the most important issues to be considered in terms of metro constructions.In these studies, these two important issues were emphasized. Generally, Mining and Geological Engineers published studies on soil and rock behavior during tunnel excavations, while Civil Engineers worked on the behavior of superstructures during tunnel excavations. The aim of this study is to prepare two different sources and information that can be used for the next subway and tunnel projects by examining the two important subjects of Üsküdar-Ümraniye-Çekmeköy Metro Construction and Electromechanical Works. The surface displacement values obtained as a result of the geotechnical measurements were compared with the results of the important people who have done studies on this subject, the differences between them were investigated, the factors that caused these differences were investigated and finally, a new surface deformation proposal was proposed as a result of the displacement values obtained.The aim of the study is to establish analytical and empirical methods for the estimation of surface deformations caused by different types of tunnel sections constructed within the scope of Üsküdar-Ümraniye-Çekmeköy Metro Construction and Electromechanical Works project. As a result of the geotechnical studies, the determination of the engineering properties of the soils is blended with the physical position of the tunnel and to form a correlation as a result of the geotechnical measurements made during the construction.Within the scope of ÜÇÇ Subway constructions, deformation measurements of T2, T3, P1 A and A2 type subway tunnels to be opened by NATM between S14 Dudullu and S15 Necip Fazıl Stations were examined and analytical and empirical correlations were formed depending on the physical location of the tunnel and the engineering properties of the ground. In the second part of the study, general information about tunnels, terms of tunnels and how to classify tunnels are mentioned. In the third part of the thesis, field and laboratory researches for the construction of tunnel projects are mentioned. In the fourth part of the thesis, rock quality and support classifications and soil classification methods which help in the design of tunnel constructions are summarized. In the classification of rocks, starting from the Terzaghi Rock Classification according to their historical order, the classifications frequently mentioned in the literature are mentioned. RQD, RMR, RSR, Q-Barton, GSI are the most commonly used classifications in Turkey. Information about the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and Highways Soil Classification System (AASHTO) is given. In the fifth section, tunneling with TBM and tunneling with NATM are mentioned. TBM and New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) are described. Stress conditions occurring in underground rock structures, history of NATM, principles of NATM, determination of NATM classification and support, consolidation and improvement methods in tunnels are explained. In the sixth part of the thesis, the empirical and analytical methods and the development of the geotechnical and mining experts that will be used to calculate the deformations will be mentioned. In the seventh section, surface displacements caused by tunnels opened with NATM on clay soils are mentioned. In this study, general information about Üsküdar-Ümraniye-Çekmeköy Metro construction is given and the geotechnical measurement results are explained. These results are compared with the empirical methods described in the previous section and a new empirical deformation estimation method will be formed in accordance with these results. This method will be compared with the old methods and the differences between them will be examined. In the last chapter, the results are evaluated and discussed in accordance with the information obtained in the seventh chapter.In this study, switch and platform tunnels constructed with New Austrian Tunneling Method - NATM on clay ground were examined on the tunnel route completed between Çekmeköy and Üsküdar in Istanbul. Within the scope of the study, firstly the relevant sections of the tunnel route were evaluated in terms of geological and geotechnical aspects. According to the results of the boring and laboratory tests, geological units in switch and platform tunnel settlement area were defined and geotechnical parameters of the soils were determined. During the construction of these tunnels, which were built according to NATM principles, geotechnical measurements were carried out and the movements in the tunnel and on the ground surface were examined. As a result of the analysis, a correlation was obtained for the estimation of the settlements that may occur on the surface during the construction of the tunnel for practical purposes and compared with the previous studies. Based on the control measurements, new correlations were tried to be formed for the estimation of possible settlements on the surface. 263

Deprem, yerkürenin iç yapısında oluşan kırılmaların meydana getirdiği titreşimlerinkaya, zemin gibi ortamlardan geçerek yeryüzünde oluşturduğu sarsıntılar olarak ifadeedilebilir. Titreşimlerin yeryüzüne ulaştıkları hali gerçekleşen kırılmanın tipi,uzunluğu, magnitüdü gibi deprem kaynaklı parametrelere bağlı olsa da dalgalarıniçlerinden geçtikleri ortamların özelliklerinden de etkilendikleri bilinmektedir. Yerelzemin etkisi olarak adlandırılan bu etki zeminlerin tekrarlı yükler altında sahip olduğugerilme şekil değiştirme davranışı, doğal periyot, topoğrafya gibi özelliklere bağlıolarak deprem dalgalarının her bir ortam için farklı şekilde değişmesine sebebiyetverir. Sismik aktivitelerin yüksek olduğu bir kuşak üzerinde yer alan ülkemiz içindepremleri oluşturan dalgaların, yapıların ve temellerinin inşa edildiği zemin ortamınaulaştığındaki özellikleri ve yıkıcılıkları üstyapıda meydana gelecek hasarlarınsebebiyet vereceği can ve mal kayıplarının yaşanmasında etkili olmaktadır. Bu nedenledeprem gibi dinamik yüklerin zemin davranışına olan etkisi oldukça önemtaşımaktadır. Tekrarlı yüke maruz kalmış zeminin davranışının belirlenmesindeyapılan dinamik analizlerde zeminin gerçeğe en uygun şekilde modellenmesi eldeedilecek sonuçların değerlendirilmesinde büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Dinamik yükleraltındaki gerilme şekil değiştirme özelliklerinin laboratuvar ve arazi deney yöntemleriile bulunmasıyla yapılan analizlerin doğruluğu ve güvenirliliği artmaktadır. Özelliklefarklı gerilme durumları ve değişen çevrimsel yükün etkisinin incelenebildiği,oluşabilecek drenajın kontrol edilebildiği laboratuvar deneyleri bu özellikleri bulmadaarazi deney yöntemlerine göre öne çıkmaktadır. Zeminin arazide sahip olduğu ortamınbir, iki, üç boyutlu olarak modellenebildiği programlarla gerçekeltirilebilen analizlerneticesinde zemin yüzeyinde meydana gelecek yatay yer değiştirmeler, oturmalar,tepki spektrumları, maksimum yer ivmesi değerleri, spektral büyütmeler, kaymadeformasyonları belirlenebilmektedir. Elde edilen sonuçların değerlendirilmesiyleinşası planlanan yapı depreme dayanıklı olarak dizayn edilebilmektedir. Analizlerarasında zemin modelinin bir boyutlu olarak oluşturulduğu tek boyutlu analizlerpratiklik açısından öne çıkmaktadır. Tek boyutlu analizlerin gerçekleştirilmesindekullanılan yöntemler zeminin tekrarlı yükler altında sahip olduğu gerilme şekildeğiştirme davranışını belirleyen dinamik özelliklerin farklı kabullere dayandırıldığıdoğrusal, eşdeğer doğrusal ve doğrusal olmayan olarak üçe ayrılmaktadır. Laboratuvarve arazi deneyleri ile belirlenen dinamik özellikler kayma modülü ve sönüm oranıolarak adlandırılmaktadır. Dinamik özelliklerin her bir tabaka için deprem hareketisırasında sabit kabul edildiği doğrusal yöntem, zeminin tekrarlı yük altında değişenrijitlik ve sönüm oranını modelleyemediğinden tercih edilmemektedir. Kayma modülüve sönüm oranının zamana ve de oluşacak deformasyona bağlı değişimini dikkate alandoğrusal olmayan yöntem birçok parametre gerektirmesinden ötürü karmaşık biryöntem olmaktadır. Dinamik özelliklerin başta kabul edilen değerlerin oluşacakdeformasyona göre iteratif şekilde elde edildiği eşdeğer doğrusal yöntem ise pratikliğisebebiyle yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır.Bu çalışmada yüksek enerji ile sıkıştırılarak oluşturulmuş mühendislik dolgusundayapılan sondaj çalışmasından elde edilen numunelerin geoteknik malzeme ve dinamiközellikleri laboratuvar deney yöntemleri ile belirlenmiştir. Sondaj numunelerininözelliklerini belirlemede ilk olarak elek ve hidrometre deneyleri yapılarak malzemeninkaba ve ince dane oranı tespit edilmiştir. İnce daneli malzeme olduğu anlaşılannumune üzerinde Atterberg limit deneyleri yapılarak zemin sınıfları belirlenmiştir.Numunelerin mukavemet parametreleri belirlemek için serbest basınç deneyleriyapılmış ardından konsolidasyon deneyleri yapılarak yük altında sıkışma davranışıincelenmiştir. Yapılan piknometre deneyleri ile özgül ağırlık değerleri belirlenmiştir.Çalışmanın amacı kapsamında sıkıştırılmış dolgu zeminin dinamik özellikleri dinamikbasit kesme deneyi ile belirlenmiştir. Geoteknik malzeme özellikleri belirlenennumuneler tabakalara ayrılmış ve dinamik özellikler olan kayma modülü ve sönümoranının kayma deformasyonları ile değişimi elde edilmiştir. Türkiye Bina DepremYönetmeliği kapsamında incelenen dolgu numunelerinin laboratuvar deneylerindenelde edilen drenajsız kayma mukavemeti yardımıyla hesaplanan kayma dalgası hızıkullanılarak zemin sınıfı belirlenmiştir. Deprem yönetmeliğinde de önerildiği gibisahaya özgü tek boyutlu dinamik analizler Deepsoil V6.1 programı kullanılarakyapılmıştır. Yapılan analizler sonucunda 11 adet deprem kaydı kullanılarakyönetmelik ve tehlike analizlerinden elde edilen yatay tepki spektrumlarıkarşılaştırılmıştır. Dinamik analizler bölümünün diğer bir kısmında ise değişenspektral ivmelere sahip 18 adet kuvvetli yer hareketi kaydı kullanılarak sıkıştırılmışzeminlerin dinamik tepkileri kayma deformasyonu, yatay deplasman, PGA,büyütmeler ve hakim periyot değerlendirilerek incelenmiştir. Earthquakes could be expressed as the vibrations caused by the ruptures in the innerstructure of the earth. Even though it is known that the properties of waves reachedground surface could be affected by the earthquake source characteristics such asmagnitude, type and length of the rapture they were also influenced by soil layerswhich they travel through. Therefore two seismic waves which are created by the samesource with the same characteristics could have completely different shapes when theyarrive ground surface due to the distinct properties of soil layers they pass through.This effect, which is called as a site effect, causes the earthquake waves to changedifferently for each medium depending on the properties of sites under dynamicloading such as stress-strain behavior, natural period and topography. Since ourcountry has a high seismic activity, the characteristic and destructiveness of the wavesat the ground surface are one of the most important topics in the evaluation ofearthquake effects in terms of loss of life and property. For this reason, the effect ofdynamic loads such as earthquake is vital on stress-strain, bearing capacity andsettlement behavior of soils. The dynamic properties which determine the stress-strainthe behavior of soils under cyclic loading called shear modulus and damping ratio aredetermined by both laboratory and field experiments. Since the laboratory experimentssuch as dynamic simple shear test have the ability to create various loading, stress anddrainage conditions comes to the forefront when field tests are considered. Dynamicanalyzes have an important role in determining the behavior of the soil subjected todynamic load. Horizontal displacements, settlements, response spectra, amplification,shear deformations that may occur on the ground surface by earthquake loading couldbe obtained from the numerical analyzes that can be performed in one, two or threedimensional according to their sufficiency to modeling of real site conditions. With theresults obtained, the planned construction can be designed as earthquake resistant.Among the analyzes methods, one-dimensional analyzes, in which the soil model isformed as layered horizontally comes forward in terms of practicality. The methodsused to perform one-dimensional analysis are divided into three as linear, equivalentlinear and non-linear procedure in which the dynamic properties that define the stress-strainbehavior of the soil under repetitive loads is based on different assumptions.The linear method which dynamic properties are considered constant during theearthquake loading for each layer is not preferred since it is not able to model the soilstiffness and damping ratio that varies under repetitive load. The nonlinear method,which takes into account the change in shear modulus and the damping ratio due totime and deformation is a complicated method because it requires many parameters.The equivalent linear method, in which the dynamic properties are obtained as a resultsof iterative procedure of initial shear modulus and damping ratio according to the shearstrain induced in soil is widely used in terms of practicality.In this study, firstly the geotechnical and dynamic properties of the soil samples whichobtained from the boring in the engineering fill which was constructed with highcompaction energy was determined by laboratory test at Prof. Dr. Kutay Özaydın SoilMechanics Laboratory. After the determination of the physical and dynamic propertiesof soil samples, engineering fill was modeled with the usage of the data obtained fromtest results by Deepsoil V6.1 in order to perform ground response analyzes.In line with the thesis purposes, sieve and hydrometer analyzes were conducted todetermine the granulometry of the compacted soil. From the results of the experiments,it was obtained that soil sample has coarse grain material varying between 7-28% andfine grain material changing between 72-93% by sieve analysis. It was stated that soilsamples attained from drilling highly consist of fine grain material.After the determination of the percentage of fine grain material, Atterberg Limits testswere carried out on soil samples to know the relationship between soil's water contentand consistency. From the result of Casagrande Liquid Limit tests, it was observed thatliquid limit (LL) is changing between 38-80% for compacted soil while the results ofplasticity limit tests indicate soil's plasticity limit (PL) is between 22-26%. With theevaluation of the test results, soil classification has been made according to the UnifiedSoil Classification System (USCS). It was concluded that the soil samples used in thisstudy were low plasticity clay (CL), high plasticity clay (CH) and low plasticity silt(ML). To better understanding of the consistency of samples liquidity index (LI) andconsistency index (CI) were calculated according to experimental results and the naturalwater content (wn). It was found that liquidity index (LI) is between -1 and 0 whileconsistency index (CI) is between 0.9 – 2. Both of the indexes indicated that soilsamples are in the hard-stiff state.Pycnometer tests were carried out to define specific gravity. It was seen that values arevarying between 2.66 and 2.75 compatible with fine-grained soil's specific gravity.In order to determine the shear strength of soil samples, unconfined compression testswere performed. It was calculated that unconfined compressive strength (qu) for soilsamples except T5 was bigger than 400 kPa which is convenient with the liquidity andconsistency index results since they correspond hard consistency.From the results of consolidation test the preconsolidation pressure (Pc') wasdetermined between 200 - 400 kPa. It was also observed during the experiment thatheave pressure (Pheave) that soil sample had varying approximately between 50-200kPa. The compression index was defined for soil samples in a range of 0.0685 -0.0959.After the determination of the geotechnical and physical properties of samplesdynamic simple shear tests were conducted to define the shear modulus (G) anddamping ratio (ξ) change. The experiments were carried out with sinusoidalwaveforms with 1 Hz loading frequency. Before starting to dynamic experimentprogram, with the tentative test it was seen that calibration of the test apparatus shouldbe done since each type of materials such as soft clay, loose sand, dense sand, stiff clayrequires different calibration factors suggested by test apparatus. Following thetentative tests the experiment device has operationalized. Since the aim of this thesiswas to perform ground response analyzes with the dynamic properties of soil samples,engineering fill was divided into six layers which are called T1 for the 0-12m, T2 for12-24 m, T3 for 24-36 m, T4 for 36-48 m, T5 for 48-60 m and T6 for 60-75 m. Stress-controlled cyclic simple shear tests were conducted with a different cyclic stress ratio(CSR) values to define the relationship between shear strain induced in the soil sampleand the shear modulus for soil layers consisted of different elevation depth. With theevaluation of the hysteretic curves obtained from test results the variation of thedamping ratio with shear strain also determined by soil samples at different depth.Since the materials investigated through thesis were clayey soils it was observed thatthe change in the dynamic properties is highly dependent on plasticity characteristicof soils rather than normal stress applied to it. As a result of tests and calculations, sixdifferent shear modulus and damping ratio curves were obtained. By the evaluation ofthe dynamic simple shear and consistency tests, empirical correlations have foundbetween the shear modulus, consistency limit and plasticity index for shear strain valuesbigger than 10-3. Since the numerical analyzes require normalized shear modulusdegradation (G/Gmaks) to determine the dynamic response, shear wave velocity hasbeen predicted by the correlations in the literature and the Earthquake Regulation forTurkey. Obtained shear wave velocities were used to calculate the maximum shearmodulus (Gmaks) which corresponds small strain range.Thereafter one-dimensional ground response analyzes were performed by Deepsoilwith the using normalized shear modulus- shear strain, damping ratio- shear straincurves procured by dynamic simple shear tests. Within the scope of analyzes eighteenstrong ground motion data with different PGA values (0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g, 0.4g) andvarious Arias Şiddeti values were used to obtain horizontal displacements, shearstrains, amplifications, peak ground accelerations and response spectrum of the soil profileby dynamic loading.It was concluded that the peak ground acceleration through the soil profile waschanging slightly for the various PGA values of input motion. As a reason for thisslight change the uniformity of soil profile (except T5) in terms of shear wavevelocities and dynamic properties could be pronounced with the impedance ratiowhich is very close to one. From the results of analyzes for earthquakes with 0.1g inputPGA, the surface PGA values for Coyoto Lake, Darfield New Zealand(14W), HectorMine(HBS180), Hector Mine (JTN90), Hollister 04, Landers, Sitka Alaska, DarfieldNew Zealand(76W) were found as 0.15g, 0.12g, 0.13g, 0.12g, 0.13g, 0.12g, 0.11g,0.11g respectively. Earthquakes with 0.2g PGA the surface PGA values for Big Bear,Basso Tirreno, Anza, Northridge, Parkfield-02 CA(36529360) were found as 0.21g,0.22g, 0.22g, 0.24g, 0.32g respectively. Earthquakes with 0.3g PGA the surface PGAvalues for Iwate, ParkDonna -90 were found as 0.30g and 0.32g respectively. Then theIwate and ParkDonna – 90 earthquakes was scaled to 0.4g to observe the effect ofhigher PGA values and the 0.31g and 0.38g were found respectively. For Kocaeliearthquake with 0.4g the surface PGA was found as 0.24g.The horizontal displacements were found as 0.01m for Big Bear, Anza, Northridge,0.02m for Coyoto Lake, Basso Tirreno, Darfield New Zealand(14W), HectorMine(HBS180), Hector Mine(JTN90), Landers, 0.03m for Hollister 04, Darfield NewZealand(76W), Parkfield-02 CA(36529360), Parkfield-02 CA(Donna90), 0.07m forIwate. For the 0.4g - scaled Iwate and ParkDonna-90 earthquakes the displacements atsurface was found as 0.10m and 0.04m respectively. From the analysis of Kocaeli thedisplacement was found as 0.13m at ground surface. It can be said that considering theshear wave velocities of the input motions, the earthquakes with small PGA and AriasŞiddeti values also have less displacement values on the ground surface in comparisonwith the earthquakes with higher PGA and Arias Şiddeti. However the input motionswith same PGA values could generate various displacement values regarding to theirArias Şiddeti (While ParkDonna-90 with 0.4g generated 0.04m displacement, Kocaeliwith same PGA and higher Arias Şiddeti generated 0.13m displacement at groundsurface.Shear strains occurred in the soil profile were evaluated through the results of analyzes.As it was expected the maximum shear strains were generated between 48-60 m whichcorresponds to T5 layer with the lowest shear wave velocity for each strong groundmotion record. The amount of shear strains induced in the soil profile at 5 m depth(approximately the base of elevation for shallow foundations) were found as 0.0045%for 0.1g input motion, 0.008% for 0.2g input motions, 0.011% for 0.3g input motion.Shear strains generated by Kocaeli, Iwate, Parkdonna – 90 were found 0.014 %,0.018%, 0.022% respectively.From the results of analysis the spectral amplifications was found to be varying between 2.15 and 2.59 at predominant periods between 0.96-1.69 sn.In the scope of the thesis, the ground response analyzes also performed to base on TurkishBuilding Earthquake Regulation (TBDY). The soil classification was made accordingto TBDY regarding shear wave velocity for upper 30 m of the soil profile anddetermined as ZC ((Vs)30 = 360-760 m/s) type of soil with average shear wave velocityof 383 m/s. Then a response spectrum was drawn according to the TBDY for ZC typeof soil and earthquake level for DD-2 (with the probability of exceeding the spectralaspects over 50 years is 10% and corresponding repetition period is 475 years.). It wasseen that the response spectrum obtained from the analyzes and calculated from theearthquake regulation has dominant periods between 0.09-0.40 sec for both. Themaximum spectral acceleration values were 0.74g for the results obtained from theregulation and 0.68g for the ground response analyses. The different peak values ofthe spectrum drawn using two methods indicate the importance of site-specificanalyzes in determining the response spectrum to be used in the design phase.In the study, the borehole in the engineering fill field has been utilized. Since thenumber of boreholes and the type of engineering fill used is the only one the data obtainedfrom them remained limited in order to obtain dynamic properties of compacted soils.By using the samples obtained from the borehole to be carried out in the various engineering fill areas, the correlation and the dynamic property curves suggested by this study are open to be developed. 157

Dünya üzerinde meydana gelen depremler birçok insanın yaşamanı olumsuz yönde etkilemekte, çok sayıda can ve mal kaybına neden olmaktadır. Bununla birlikte ülkemiz sınırları içerisinde yer alan aktif fay hatları ve kırıklar önemli hasarlara yol açan depremlere neden olmaktadır. Deprem sırasında oluşan bu hasarı etkileyen temel faktörler deprem kaynak özellikleri, yerel zemin koşullarının ve üstyapı özelikleridir. Özellikle yerel zemin koşulları, kuvvetli yer hareketi sırasında açığa çıkan sismik dalgaların genlik ve frekans içeriğini değiştirmekte ve mühendislik yapılarındaki hasar dağılımını önemli ölçüde etkilemektedir. Bu nedenle deprem gibi dinamik yükler altında zemin davranışının belirlenmesi son derece büyük bir önem taşımaktadır. Kuvvetli yer hareketi sırasında zemin dinamik davranışının belirlenmesi için mikrobölgeleme çalışmaları yapılmaktadır. Mikrobölgeleme çalışmaları, araştırma bölgesini daha küçük alt birimlere ayırarak zemin büyütmesi, şev stabilitesi ve sıvılaşma olmak üzere üç farklı geoteknik olay için gerçekleştirilmektedir. Birinci aşama mikrobölgeleme çalışmalarında bölge ile ilgili genel bilgiler toplanıp derlenerek, bölgedeki sismik aktiviteye neden olacak kaynaklar belirlenmektedir. İkinci aşamada ise bölgedeki anakaya derinliğini, zemin tabakalaşmasını, zemin dinamik özelliklerini belirlenmek için çeşitli arazi deneyleri yapılmaktadır. Üçüncü aşama mikrobölgeleme çalışmalarında ise ilk ikinci aşamada elde edilen sonuçlar kullanılarak 1, 2, 3 boyutlu zemin dinamik analizleri yapılmaktadır.Deprem sırasındaki zemin dinamik davranışının belirlemesi için en uygun yöntem, inceleme yapılan bölgedeki deprem kayıtları ve yerel zemin koşullarını göz önünde bulundurarak dinamik analizlerinin yapılmasıdır. Fakat kuvvetli yer hareketi kayıtlarının ve derin sondaj kuyularının bulunmadığı durumlarda ise mikrotremor ölçümleri alternatif bir yöntem olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Zemin tabakalarında kayda değer bir örselenme oluşturmaması, sağladığı ekonomik avantajlar ve uygulama kolaylığı nedeniyle mikrotremor ölçümleri zemin dinamik davranışının incelenmesinde sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Arazide gerçekleştirilen mikrotremor ölçümleri ile kayma dalgasının hızının derinlik ile değişimi, mühendislik anakaya derinliği, zemin hakim periyodu ve büyütmesi belirlenebilmektedir.Bu çalışmada, Bursa İli Güzelyalı Beldesi'nde mikrobölgeleme çalışması yapılmış ve tek boyutlu analiz ve mikrotremor ölçüm sonuçları karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu amaçla birinci aşama mikrobölgeleme kapsamında, bölgede daha önceden yapılmış olan 68 sondaj verisi, jeolojik raporlar ve deprem raporları kullanılarak bölgedeki zemin tabakaları Deprem Bölgelerinde Yapılacak Binalar Hakkında Yönetmelik (DBYBHY), Desing of Structures for Earthquake Resistance (Eurocode 8), National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) ve Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği (TBDY)'ne göre sınıflandırılmıştır. Aktif fay hatları ve kırıklar belirlenmiş ve daha önceden yapılmış sismik tehlike analizleri ile birlikte değerlendirilmiştir. İkinci aşama mikrobölgeleme çalışmalarında, bölge 200m x 200m boyutlarında hücrelere ayrılarak her bir hücre isimlendirilmiş, daha önceden yapılan 60 tekil mikrotremor ölçümlerinin bölgedeki dağılımı değerlendirilmiş ve her bir hücrede en az bir mikrotremor kaydı olacak şekilde belirlenen hücrelerde 14 adet tekil ve 7 adet eş zamanlı mikrotremor ölçümü gerçekleştirilmiştir. Derleme ve ölçümler sonucunda elde edilen toplam 74 tekil mikrotremor kaydının Geopsy V2.9.1 programı yardımı ile spektral analizleri (H/V) yapılarak zemin hakim periyodu ve zemin büyütmesi değerleri belirlenmiştir. Spektral analiz ve bölgede daha önceden yapılmış olan olasılıksal sismik tehlike analiz sonuçları kullanılarak hasar görebilirlik ve zemin yüzeyinde meydana gelen birim şekil değiştirmeler hesaplanmıştır. Bölgede alınan eş zamanlı mikrotremor kayıtlarının analizi ile de kayma dalgası hızının (Vs) derinlik ile değişimi ve mühendislik anakaya derinliği belirlenmiştir. Üçüncü aşama mikrobölgelemede ise belirlenen kayma dalgası hızı-derinlik profilleri ve mühendislik anakaya derinliği ve bölgede daha önce yapılmış 68 adet sondaj çalışması ile birlikte incelenerek zemin modelleri oluşturulmuştur. Oluşturulan zemin modellerinin bölgedeki fay mekanizması ve geçmiş depremler göz önünde bulundurularak belirlenen 6 farklı deprem için zemin dinamik analizi yapılmıştır. Bir boyutlu zemin dinamik analizleri sonucunda elde edilen kayma şekil değiştirmeler, mikrotremor ölçümlerinden elde edilen kayma şekil değiştirmeleri ile kıyaslanarak coğrafi bilgi sistemleri programı olan ArcGIS ile haritalandırılmıştır. Mikrotremor ölçümleri ve tek boyutlu analizle sonucunda elde edilen kayma şekil değiştirmesi arasında pratik amaçlar doğrultusunda kullanılabilecek bir bağıntı önerilmiştir. Earthquakes affect human life in negatively and cause loss of life and property. Especially, active seismic regions could be very dangerous for people and Turkey is one of the active seismic regions with North Anatolian Fault Line, Western Anatolian Fault Line and Eastern Anatolian Fault Line. Over and above, a big part of Turkey population and many factories are located in this region. Therefore, knowing the characteristic of this region is the most significant to protect people lives from earthquakes effects. Many of the disciplines such as geology, seismology, geophysics, geotechnics, and structural engineering are working together to reduce these effects and take necessary precautions against earthquake.There are three main factors that cause damage to civil engineering structures with earthquake impact. These are earthquake source characteristics, building performance characteristics and local soil conditions. Especially, local soil conditions which have the different characteristic even within the same region cause great damage during earthquakes. For this reason, the effect of strong ground motion on ground dynamic behavior must be determined correctly. When seismic waves which are occurred by strong ground motion, moved through soil layers, they change their own characteristics and soil layers properties. This leads to serious structural damages.For reduce the damage that occurs after earthquakes, responsibilities of geotechnical engineers are to determine dynamic behavior of soil layers and how this dynamic behavior affects civil engineering structures. That's why microzonation studies are carried out in order to reduce the damage that may occur in earthquakes.Microzonation; in the most general sense, to estimate the behavior of the soil layers during the earthquake and to determine the changes which caused by the earthquake in the surface. Microzonation studies which have three different stages are carried out for soil amplification, soil stability and liquefaction in geotechnical earthquake engineering. The first stage of microzonation is reconnoitered in the field and pre-made maps, field experiment data are collected. The second stage is tried to determine the dynamic ground properties of the region by carrying out necessary field studies in the region. In the third and last stage, soil models were constructed using the results obtained in the first two stages and 1, 2 or 3-dimensional dynamic analyzes were performed to determine the characteristics of earthquake effect on the soil surface.In the content of microzonation studies, soil amplification needs to be determined for urban and regional planning and land use decisions. In accordance with this purpose, microzonation studies are carried out considering the fault characteristic in the region. In microzonation, the study area is divided into small sub-parts for defined the effect of eartquake on soil surface such as, soil amplification, predominant period, peak ground acceleration (PGA), displacement and shear strain in soil layers.Microzonation studies consist of three different stages, as similar as microzonation studies. In the first stage of microzonation, the seismic hazard analysis is performed by using the geological, geophysical, tectonic, seismological and geotechnical characteristics of the region and evaluating the seismicity of the region. In the second stage, previously determined field measurements are carried out in the region and these field measurements are supported by laboratory experiments. In the third stage microzonation studies, soil models are prepared by considering local soil conditions and strong ground motion characteristics are determination by using soil dynamic analysis on soil surface. Distribution of these results within the region are evaluated within microzonation and results are mapped by using Geographic Information System (GIS).In this study, microzonation is carried out Bursa-Guzelyalı region which located on the 1. degree earthquake zone. For this purpose, within the scope of first stage microzonation, 68 borehole data and previous geotechnical reports are collected. As a result of these data and reports, soil layers are classified in accordance with Deprem Bölgelerinde Yapılacak Binalar Hakkında Yönetmelik (DBYBHY), Eurocode 8 and National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP). However, active fault lines are determined and seismic hazard analysis are examined in this region.In the second stage of microzonation studies, working region is divided into cells with dimensions of 200mx200m and each cell is named. Previous 60 single point microtremor measurements, 14 single point microtremor measurements and 7 multi point microtremor measurements which are done by our research group are mapped according to their location within the working area. Microtremor records which are collected as a result of the studies, are analyzed according to H/V method by using Geopsy V2.9.1 and determined predominant period and soil amplification. Shear strain on soil surface and vulnerability indices are calculated with Nakamura Method by using these analysis's findings and previous probabilistic seismic hazard results. Multi point microtremor measurements are analyzed according to Spatial Autocorrelation method (SPAC) and Hybrid Heuristic Method and determined the shear wave velocity (Vs) change with depth and depth of seismic bedrock.The last and third stage of microzonation, determined shear wave velocity change with depth and bedrock are evaluated with 68 borehole data and created soil models for 1D soil dynamic analysis. In order to six different earthquakes records are determined by considering the fault mechanism and past earthquakes in this region. These earthquakes are 1979 Coyote Lake (0.1g), Palm Springs, 2005 Anza (0.2g), Bigbear, 2004 Parkfield (0.3g) and 1999 Kocaeli (0.4g). Soil models are analyzed according to these earthquake records by using Deepsoil V6.1 and determined peak ground acceleration (PGA), displacement and shear strain in soil layers. The predominant period and soil amplification which are obtained from analyzes of single point microtremor measurements, results that are calculated by using Nakamura Method and PGA, displacement and shear strain in soil layers which are determined by one-dimensional soil dynamic analysis are mapped by using ArcGIS that is a a geographic information system software.As a result of this study, the boreholes has about 15 ~ 35 m depths in the researh area and according to geotechnical reports and others, the soil type of region is extensively alluvial. The plain areas in region have coastal sediments and extend from the east to the west and parallel to coastline. The sediments composed of neogene aged conglomerate, sandstone, claystone, limestone and marble are located in the eastern and western directions of the region and in the southern parts of the region. To the south of the research area are volcanic units consisting of Eocene and Neogene Andesites. Triassic aged bedrock outcrops are observed east of the region. Quaternary alluviums, marsh sediments and coastal sediments composed of Neogene aged conglomerate, sandstone, claystone, limestone and marn as geology of the region. The alluviums inside of the region are generally composed of gravelly sandy clay and silty clay fine grained sediments but coastal sediments are generally composed of gravelly silty sandy material.As a result of single point measurements analysis, predominant periods soil amplification are determined range from 0.06 to 0.90 seconds and range from 2.1 to 10.7 respectively. When the distribution of the calculated Vulnerability Indices in the region is examined, these values change between 0-20 in the middle, western and eastern parts of the region. Vulnerability Indices change range from 20 to 30 in soil layers which are formed alluvium and the underlying clay and sandstone. Vulnerability Indices range from 30 to 100 in deep alluvial deposits. Shear strain values are changed as 0.00004-0.02527.As a result of multi point measurements analysis, shear wave velocity changes with depth and seismic bedrock depth are determined for each point. In the north and west parts of the region, the depth of the seismic bedrock is defined about 70-75 meters and the east and south parts of the region the depth of the seismic bedrock determined varies between 45-54 meters.As a result of 1D soil dynamic analysis, PGA, displacement, spectral soil amplification, predominant periods, spectral acceleration and shear strain are determined for research area. PGA values are changed between 0.11-0.73g for six different earthquakes. Moreover, displacements are varied between m, 0.0008 and 0.1101 m for all results of 1D analysis. Spectral soil amplification and predominant period are respectively changed from 1.16 to 4.48, betweeen 0.07-1.40 in research area. However, spectral accelerations are calculated for 0.2, 0.6 and 1.0 s in the region. As a result of calculation of shear strain values using by 1D analysis, values are varied as %0.001- 0.154 for four different accelleration of rock outcrop.As mentioned above, the level of shear deformations occurring in soil layers near the surface due to the earthquakes affect the structural damage distribution. In order to predict this effect, dynamic behavior of the ground should be determined under strong ground motion. In accordance with this objective, in the study are microtremor measurements were performed and examined borehole studies for determine soil layer properties. A result of field studies, microtremor measurements were analyzed according to the Nakamura Method and 1D Dynamic analyzes were performed. The obtained results are examined both in the map and numerical results. When the Nakamura method and 1D analysis results were considered, it was determined that similar results were obtained in the same regions. For reason of these kind of similarities, a exponential correlation was obtained shear strain values between result of microtremor measurements and 1D dynamic analyzes for aluvion soil layers. This correlation seems to be useful estimating deformations of soil layers based on microtremor measurement. Our purpose in future studies are to improve the correlation by increasing the number of data and to make it usable for practical purposes. 233