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Additional file 1. English questionnaire of the survey.

Additional File 2. Complete results of the answers to the questionnaire.

Synapse connectivity occurs in a precise manner such that no two types of afferents innervate the same postsynaptic subcellular domain. To test whether this specificity is controlled by a unique combination of molecules at each synapse, I used the olivo-cerebellar circuit as a model. There, two excitatory inputs, the Parallel fibers originating from granule cells and Climbing fibers originating from inferior olivary neurons, innervate distinct territories on the same target neuron, the Purkinje cell. Comparative gene expression analysis of these two inputs showed that the inferior olivary neurons express a greater diversity of genes encoding membrane and secreted proteins belonging to immune system-related pathways. Moreover, each input expresses a specific combination of complement-related genes. Among these, I identified the functional roles of two novel candidate genes specifically expressed by inferior olivary neurons. Secreted C1Q-related protein C1QL1 plays an instructive role in specifying Climbing fiber innervation territory on Purkinje cells, while membrane-bound complement control-related protein SUSD4 ensures the acquisition of proper functional properties of Climbing fiber synapses and their long-term stability. Given that C1Q-related CBLN1 promotes Parallel fiber synaptogenesis, these results show that different members of the C1Q family are important determinants of the identity and specific connectivity of each excitatory synapse in the cerebellar cortex. This study provides novel insights into the “chemoaffinity code” that controls subcellular specificity at each synapse type during the formation of neural circuits., La synaptogenèse est un processus précis : chaque type d'afférences innerve des domaines subcellulaires post-synaptiques spécifiques sur leur cible neuronale. Pour tester si cette spécificité est contrôlée par une combinaison unique de molécules à chaque synapse, j'ai utilisé le système olivo-cérébelleux comme modèle. Deux afférences excitatrices, les fibres parallèles issues des grains et les fibres grimpantes issues des neurones de l'olive inférieure, innervent des territoires distincts sur la même cible, la cellule de Purkinje. Une analyse comparative des profils d'expressions génique des grains et des neurones olivaires a montré que ces derniers expriment une plus grande diversité de protéines membranaires et sécrétées liées au système immunitaire. De plus, chaque type d'afférences exprime une combinaison spécifique de gènes liés à la voie du complément du système immunitaire inné. Parmi ceux-ci, la protéine sécrétée C1QL1, de la famille C1Q, joue un rôle instructif pour l'établissement du territoire d'innervation des fibres grimpantes sur les cellules de Purkinje. La protéine membranaire liée au complément SUSD4 assure, quant à elle, la maturation fonctionnelle et la stabilisation de ces synapses. Sachant que la protéine CBLN1 de la famille C1Q contrôle la synaptogenèse des fibres parallèles, ces résultats montrent que les différents membres de la famille C1Q sont des déterminants importants de l'identité et de la connectivité spécifique de chaque synapse excitatrice dans le cortex cérébelleux. Cette étude porte un nouvel éclairage sur l'hypothèse de la " chemoaffinité " et de sa participation à la formation de circuits neuronaux spécifiques et précis.

International audience; The establishment of a functional brain depends on the fine regulation and coordination of many processes, including neurogenesis, differentiation, dendritogenesis, axonogenesis, and synaptogenesis. Proteins of the immunoglobulin-like superfamily (IGSF) are major regulators during this sequence of events. Different members of this class of proteins play non-overlapping functions at specific developmental time-points, as shown in particular by studies of the cerebellum. We have identified a member of the little studied EWI subfamily of IGSF, the protein IGSF3, as a membrane protein expressed in a neuron specific- and time dependent-manner during brain development. In the cerebellum, it is transiently found in membranes of differentiating granule cells, and is particularly concentrated at axon terminals. There it co-localizes with other IGSF proteins with well-known functions in cerebellar development: TAG-1 and L1. Functional analysis shows that IGSF3 controls the differentiation of granule cells, more precisely axonal growth and branching. Biochemical experiments demonstrate that, in the developing brain, IGSF3 is in a complex with the tetraspanin TSPAN7, a membrane protein mutated in several forms of X-linked intellectual disabilities. In cerebellar granule cells, TSPAN7 promotes axonal branching and the size of TSPAN7 clusters is increased by downregulation of IGSF3. Thus IGSF3 is a novel regulator of neuronal morphogenesis that might function through interactions with multiple partners including the tetraspanin TSPAN7. This developmentally regulated protein might thus be at the center of a new signaling pathway controlling brain development. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

International audience; Precise patterns of connectivity are established by different types of afferents on a given target neuron, leading to well-defined and non-overlapping synaptic territories. What regulates the specific characteristics of each type of synapse, in terms of number, morphology and subcellular localization, remains to be understood. Here we show that the signaling pathway formed by the secreted complement C1Q-related protein C1QL1 and its receptor, the adhesion-GPCR Brain Angiogenesis Inhibitor 3 (BAI3), control the stereotyped pattern of connectivity established by excitatory afferents on cerebellar Purkinje cells. The BAI3 receptor modulates synaptogenesis of both parallel fiber and climbing fiber afferents. The restricted and timely expression of its ligand C1QL1 in inferior olivary neurons ensures the establishment of the proper synaptic territory for climbing fibers. Given the broad expression of C1QL and BAI proteins in the developing mouse brain, our study reveals a general mechanism contributing to the formation of a functional brain.