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Extensive use of synthetic musk compounds (SMs) in numerous consumer and personal care products has resulted in direct human exposures via dermal absorption, inhalation of contaminated dust and volatilized fragrances, and oral ingestion of contaminated foods and liquids. SMs and their metabolites are lipophilic, hence commonly detected in various biological matrices such as blood, breast milk, and adipose tissue. Appropriate analytical techniques are needed to detect and quantify SMs in biological matrices to assess their potential effects on human health. Different methods to process and analyze SMs in biological matrices, including sample-pretreatment, solvent extraction, cleanup, and instrumental analysis, are presented in this review. The concentration levels of selected musk compounds in biological samples from different countries/regions are summarized. Finally, research gaps and questions pertaining to the analysis of SMs are identified and suggestions made for future research studies.

Background Synthetic musk compounds are widely used as fragrances in many consumer products; however, information on human exposure and health effects is limited. Also, analytical methods for their quantification in biological matrices are limited. Objective In this study, an integrated method was developed and validated for the analysis of selected synthetic musk compounds in human serum. Method The method is based on liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), sample clean-up by solid-phase extraction (SPE), and separation and detection by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Results The method demonstrated good recoveries (86–105%) and high sensitivity, with low method detection limits (MDLs) ranging from 0.04 to 0.17 µg/L. The method was applied to the analysis of 10 synthetic musk compounds in 40 serum samples collected from Canadian women aged 20–44 years (20 individual samples collected in 2014 and 20 pooled samples collected in 2006). The most commonly detected compound was Galaxolide (HHCB), with median concentrations of 0.59 µg/L in samples collected in 2006, and 0.34 µg/L for samples collected in 2014. Musk ketone (MK) was not detected in any of the samples collected in 2006, but was detected in 60% of the samples collected in 2014 with a median concentration of 0.29 µg/L. Tonalide (AHTN) was detected in only one sample above its MDL (0.12 µg/L). Conclusions This is the first study in Canada to report levels of synthetic musks in human. The data generated from this study has been used in risk screening assessment by Environment and Climate Change Canada and Health Canada.

Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive data on the diversity of chemicals present in vaping liquids. To address this gap, a non-targeted analysis of 825 vaping liquids collected between 2017 and 2019 from Canadian retailers was conducted. Prior to mass spectrometry analysis, samples were diluted 1:500 v/v with methanol or acetonitrile. Chemical compound separation and analysis was carried out using gas chromatography and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) systems operated in the full scan mode and mass range of 35–450 m/z. Mass spectrum for each sample was obtained in electron ionization at 70 eV and processed. Non-targeted identification workflow included use of automated mass spectral deconvolution and identification system (AMDIS), where required, as well as a number of commercially available spectral libraries. In order to validate identities, an in-house database of expected compounds previously detected in vaping liquids was used along with genuine analytical standards for compounds of interest. This resulted in a dataset of over 1,500 unique detected chemicals. Approximately half of these chemical compounds were detected only once in a single product and not in multiple products analyzed. For any sample analyzed, on average, 40% of the chemical constituents appeared to have flavouring properties. The remainder were nicotine and related alkaloids, processing, degradation or indirect additives, natural extractives and compounds with unknown roles. Data published here from the project on the Open Characterization of vaping liquids is unique as it offers a detailed understanding of products’ flavour chemical profiles, the presence and frequency of chemicals of potential health concern, as well as trends and changes in products’ chemical complexity over a three-year period. Non-targeted chemical surveillance such as this present valuable tools to public health officials and researchers in responding to emergent issues such as vaping associated lung injury or informing chemical based strategies which may be aimed at addressing product safety or appeal.

It is already known that bisphenol S (BPS) has been used as a substitute for BPA in thermal papers in recent years. It is not clear, however, if BPS has also been used to replace BPA in can coatings as currently being speculated due to a lack of credible studies on migration of BPS from can coatings and occurrence data of BPS in foods. In this study, an LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of BPS, along with several other bisphenols, and method detection limits for BPS varied from 0.0017 to 3.1 ng/g depending on the type of sample matrix and the amount of sample analysed. This method was used to analyse 159 different food composite samples from a recent Canadian total diet study. Bisphenol E (BPE), bisphenol B (BPB), and bisphenol AF (BPAF) were not detected in any of the 159 food composite samples, bisphenol F (BPF) was detected in only three samples (25-2360 ng/g), and bisphenol A (BPA) was detected in 10 samples (5.3-41 ng/g) which were all prepared from canned foods. BPS was not detected in any of the canned food composite samples but was detected in nine food composite samples prepared from meat and meat products (1.2-35 ng/g), indicating sources for BPS other than can coatings may be possible, which will be investigated in future studies.

While adult exposure to total bisphenol A (BPA) has been well documented, developmental exposure to BPA and fetal exposure to the bioactive form (free BPA) remains poorly defined. Therefore, pregnant women (n = 199) between 28 and 35 weeks of pregnancy were invited to participate in this study. Maternal serum free of hemolysis (n = 189) and urine (n = 112) were collected at third trimester and delivery along with umbilical cord blood (UCB) at delivery. Free BPA, BPA mono-glucuronide (BPA-G) and total BPA concentrations were measured using gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Circulating concentrations of free BPA were quantifiable above the method detection limit (MDL = 0.026 ng/mL) in approximately 34% of serum samples in the third trimester and 21% of samples at delivery whereas BPA-G and total BPA were quantified in 43 and 70% of third trimester and delivery samples, respectively. The geometric mean of free BPA, BPA-G and total BPA concentrations in maternal serum during the third trimester and at delivery were 0.62 ng/L and

Tris(2‐ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP, CAS no. 78‐42‐2) is a plasticizer and a flame retardant, while di(2‐ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (DEHPA, CAS no. 298‐07‐7) is an oil additive and extraction solvent. Publicly‐available information on repeated exposure to these two related organophosphate compounds is fragmentary. Hence, adult male and female Fischer rats were exposed to TEHP (300, 1000 and 3000 mg/kg body weight [BW]/day) or DEHPA (20, 60 and 180 mg/kg BW/day) by gavage for 28 consecutive days, to assess and compare their toxicities. Although significantly impaired BW gains and evidence of TEHP enzymatic hydrolysis to DEHPA were observed only in males, exposures to the highest TEHP and DEHPA doses often resulted in similar alterations of hematology, serum clinical chemistry and liver enzymatic activities in both males and females. The squamous epithelial hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis observed in the non‐glandular forestomach of rats exposed to the middle and high DEHPA doses were most likely caused by the slightly corrosive nature of this chemical. Although tubular degeneration and spermatid retention were observed only in the testes of males exposed to the highest TEHP dose, numerous periodic acid‐Schiff stained crystalline inclusions were observed in testis interstitial cells at all TEHP dose levels. No‐observed‐adverse‐effect levels for TEHP and DEHPA are proposed, but the lower serum pituitary hormone levels resulting from TEHP and DEHPA exposures and the perturbations of testicular histology observed in TEHP‐treated males deserve further investigation. Improved characterization of the toxicity of flame retardants will contribute to better informed substitution choices for legacy flame retardants phased‐out over health concerns., Tris(2‐ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP) is a plasticizer and a flame retardant, while the related di(2‐ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (DEHPA) is an oil additive and extraction solvent. TEHP and DEHPA toxicities were compared in a rat 28‐day oral exposure study. Although TEHP hydrolysis to DEHPA was detected only in males, TEHP and DEHPA often had similar effects on the endpoints assessed in both males and females. The observed alterations of serum pituitary hormone levels and testis histological features in males warrant further investigation.

Phthalates have been used as plasticisers for several decades in various industry and consumer products. A method was developed for the determination of 13 not commonly monitored phthalates in household dust. The method was based on solvent extraction using sonication, sample clean-up by solid phase extraction (SPE), and analysis using isotope dilution gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS). The method was applied to the analysis of dust samples collected using two vacuum sampling techniques from 38 urban Canadian homes: a sample of fresh or ‘active’ dust (FD) collected by technicians and a composite sample taken from the household vacuum cleaner (HD). Spearman rank correlations between HD and FD samples were significant for six phthalates with median concentrations above their method detection limits (MDLs), suggesting that the HD samples provide comparable results with FD samples. Seven phthalates were detected and quantified in a Canada-wide set of 126 household dust samples, am...

A method based on gas chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was chosen over liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for the simultaneous measurement of bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (OP), 4-n-nonylphenol (n-NP), 4-nonylphenol (NP), 4-nonylphenol monoethoxylate (NP1EO), and 4-nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO) in indoor dust. The GC-MS/MS-based method demonstrated high sensitivity, with method detection limits (MDLs) ranging from 0.06 to 0.16 μg g−1. Two types of dust samples were collected using two methods: fresh dust (FD) sampling and household vacuum (HD) sampling. Comparisons of FD and HD samples collected from a subset of 44 homes were based on Spearman rank test. Significant correlations were found for the majority of the target analytes (i.e., BPA, NP, NP1EO and NP2EO), suggesting that household vacuum sampling could be used as an alternative to the expensive fresh dust sampling. Target compounds were then analyzed in 260 HD samples collected from randomly selected urban Canadian single family dwellings as part of the Canadian House Dust Study (CHDS). All target compounds were detected with high frequency (>99%); the most predominant compounds were NP, NP1EO, NP2EO and BPA, with median concentrations (range in parenthesis) of 6.84 (1.0–84.2) μg g−1, 2.13 (0.39–20.4) μg g−1, 2.84 (

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants in many applications; however, certain PBDE congeners are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic to both humans and the environment. PBDEs have been found in human specimens, and a variety of analytical techniques have been used for their determination in biological matrixes. Nevertheless, obtaining a relatively clean analytical blank sample during PBDE analysis is a big challenge because of the ubiquitous nature of these compounds. Thus, the present study was conducted to compare the PBDE background levels associated with the three most commonly used extraction techniques: liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), SPE, and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE). Conventionally used blank matrixes (HPLC grade water, Milli-Q water, and air) were spiked with internal standards and extracted using LLE, SPE, or ASE. The extracts were analyzed by GC/electron ionization-tandem MS. The ASE method achieved the lowest background levels for nearly all the PBDE congeners analyzed, which may be attributed to the stainless steel and closed-vessel nature of the ASE cells.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are high-production volume chemicals. Use of OPEs has largely increased since the phase-out/ban of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The ubiquitous occurrence of OPEs, in higher concentrations in abiotic matrices than brominated flame retardants (BFRs), is a concern because several of the OPEs have been linked to adverse health effects. In this study, urinary metabolites of OPEs were measured in a subset of a population-based sample of women of child bearing age recruited in Ontario, and associations between serum lipid levels and urinary concentrations of OPE metabolites were evaluated. Urine samples (n = 120) were extracted using automated solid phase extraction and analysed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Diphenyl phosphate (DPHP), bis(2-chloropropyl) phosphate (BCIPP) and bis(1,3-dichloro-2 propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP) were detected with frequencies of 100%, 76% and 75% at median concentrations of 13.8 ng/mL, 0.5 ng/mL and 1.8 ng/mL, respectively. Bis(2-chloroethyl) hydrogen phosphate (BCEP) and di-cresyl phosphate (DCP; mixture of 3 isomers) were detected in 52% and 42% of the samples, respectively. Detected at lower frequencies were 1-hydroxy-2-propyl bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPHIPP, 29%), bis-2(butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEP, 11%), and desbutyl-tris-(2-butoxy-ethyl) phosphate (desbutyl TBOEP, 9%). Using multiple regression model, a negative statistically significant correlation was observed between BCEP and cholesterol (p = 0.04), as well as BCEP and total lipid (p = 0.04). Whereas BCIPP was positively and significantly correlated with cholesterol (p = 0.003) and LDL (p = 0.001). Additional work to further explore these relationships and to evaluate more recently identified OPE metabolites is warranted.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used industrial chemical in the manufacturing of polycarbonate plastic bottles, food and beverage can linings, thermal receipts, and dental sealants. Animal and human studies suggest that BPA may disrupt normal hormonal function and hence, potentially, have negative effects on the human health. While total BPA is frequently reported, it is recognized that free BPA is the biologically active form and is rarely reported in the literature. The objective of this study was to develop a sensitive and improved method for the measurement of free and total BPA in human urine. Use of a labeled conjugated BPA (bisphenol A-d6 β-D-glucuronide) allowed for the optimization of the enzymatic reaction and permitted an accurate determination of the conjugated BPA concentration in urine samples. In addition, a (13)C12-BPA internal standard was used to account for the analytical recoveries and performance of the isotope dilution method. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) combined with derivatization and analysis using a triple quadrupole GC-EI/MS/MS system achieved very low method detection limit of 0.027 ng/mL. BPA concentrations were measured in urine samples collected during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy in 36 Canadian women. Total maternal BPA concentrations in urine samples ranged from not detected to 9.40 ng/mL (median, 1.21 ng/mL), and free BPA concentrations ranged from not detected to 0.950 ng/mL (median, 0.185 ng/mL). Eighty-six percent of the women had detectable levels of conjugated BPA, whereas only 22 % had detectable levels of free BPA in their urine. BPA levels measured in this study agreed well with data reported internationally.

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are persistent organic pollutants representing two classes of environmental contaminants of toxicological concern, especially for infants. Canadian biomonitoring data on these chemicals are limited. The objectives of this study were to measure PFAAs and PBDEs in umbilical cord blood from approximately 100 hospital deliveries in Ottawa (Ontario, Canada) and examine associations with characteristics of the mother and infant. Geometric means were 1.469 ng/mL for perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) (95% confidence interval of 1.292-1.671 ng/mL), 4.443 ng/mL for perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (95% CI of 3.735-5.285 ng/mL), 0.359 ng/mL for perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) (95% CI of 0.318-0.404 ng/mL), and 0.579 ng/mL for perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) (95% CI of 0.473-0.709 ng/mL). The final multiple regression models indicated that lower gravida, term gestational age, smoking during pregnancy and vaginal delivery were significantly associated with higher levels of PFOS. Similarly, a vaginal delivery was significantly associated with higher PFOA, while weak associations were found with lower gravida and birth weight less than 2500 g. Furthermore, higher PFNA concentrations were significantly associated with older mothers, and vaginal delivery, while weakly associated with term gestational age. Elevated PFHxS concentrations were significantly associated with smoking during pregnancy and lower gravida. Similar to reports from other countries, the preponderant PBDE congener measured in the cord blood was PBDE-47. Questions remain on why various studies have reported conflicting results on the association between PFAAs and birth weight.

Bisphenol A is widely used as a monomer in the manufacture of polycarbonates and epoxy resins, as an antioxidant in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics and as an inhibitor of end polymerisation in PVC. Several different methods have been used to quantify total BPA in biological specimens. However, quantification of both free and conjugated BPA continues to present challenges. Moreover, there is limited data concerning fetal exposure. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a new method for the analysis of both free and conjugated BPA in human maternal and umbilical cord blood serum. For the analysis of free BPA, the method consisted of a liquid-liquid extraction followed by a two-step solid-phase extraction sample cleanup on Florisil and Oasis HLB sorbents, derivatization of the extract using N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) and analysis by gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC/EI-MS/MS). To determine the amount of conjugated BPA in serum samples, bisphenol A-d6 β-glucuronide (4-[1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methylethyl-d6]phenyl β-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid) was added to each sample prior to enzymatic deconjugation. The MDL and LOQ for BPA were 0.026 ng/mL and 0.087 ng/mL, respectively. The observed recoveries ranged between 65% and 88%. The new method was applied to the determination of paired human maternal and umbilical cord blood serum samples. The results demonstrated that total BPA concentrations in human maternal serum at mid-pregnancy and at delivery ranged from

Chicken eggs categorised as conventional, omega-3 enriched, free range and organic were collected at grading stations in three regions of Canada between 2005 and 2006. Free run eggs, which were only available for collection from two regions, were also sampled during this time frame. Egg yolks from each of these egg types (n = 162) were analysed to determine brominated flame retardant levels, specifically polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). PBDEs were detected in 100% of the 162 samples tested, while HBCD was observed in 85% of the egg yolks. Total PBDE concentrations in egg yolks ranged from 0.018 to 20.9 ng g(-1) lipid (median = 3.03 ng g(-1) lipid), with PBDE 209 identified as being the major contributor to ΣPBDE concentrations. In addition to PBDE 209, PBDE 99, 47, 100, 183 and 153 were important contributors to ΣPBDE concentrations. Total HBCD concentrations ranged from below the limit of detection to a maximum concentration of 71.9 ng g(-1) lipid (median = 0.053 ng g(-1) lipid). The α-isomer was the dominant contributor to ΣHBCD levels in Canadian egg yolks and was the most frequently detected HBCD isomer. ΣPBDE levels exhibited large differences in variability between combinations of region and type. ΣHBCD concentrations were not significantly different among regions, although differences were observed between the different types of egg yolks analysed in the present study.

Over the last few years, the use of organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) has been on the rise; however, there are knowledge gaps in both the human health effects of OPFRs and levels of human exposure. Currently, human biomonitoring data on the levels of OPFR metabolites in the Canadian population are still non-existent. Herein we describe a novel method to measure nine urinary OPFR metabolites using solid phase extraction and ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The method detection limits were between 0.08 and 0.25ng/mL for target metabolites. The newly developed and validated method was applied to the analysis of 24 urine samples collected in 2010-12 from pregnant Canadian women. The most frequently detected OPFR metabolite in urine of study participants (detection frequency: 97%) was diphenyl phosphate (DPHP), with concentrations ranging between

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a persistent environmental contaminant. Activation of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARα) resulting from exposure to PFOA has been extensively studied in rodents. However, marked differences in response to peroxisome proliferators prevent extrapolation of rodent PPARα activation to human health risks and additional molecular mechanisms may also be involved in the biological response to PFOA exposure. To further explore the potential involvement of such additional pathways, the effects of PFOA exposure on urinary metabolites were directly compared with those of other well-known PPARα agonists. Male rats were administered PFOA (10, 33, or 100 mg/kg/d), fenofibrate (100 mg/kg/d), or di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (100 mg/kg/d) by gavage for 3 consecutive days and allowed to recover for 4 days, and overnight urine was collected. Greater urinary output was observed exclusively in PFOA-treated rats as the total fraction of PFOA excreted in urine increased with the dose administered. Assessment of urinary metabolites (ascorbic acid, quinolinic acid, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, and malondialdehyde) provided additional information on PFOA's effects on hepatic glucuronic acid and tryptophan-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) pathways and on oxidative stress, whereas increased liver weight and palmitoyl-CoA oxidase activity indicative of PPARα activation and peroxisomal proliferation persisted up to day five after the last exposure.

Phthalates have been used extensively as plasticizers to improve the flexibility of polymers, and they also have found many industrial applications. They are ubiquitous in the environment and have been detected in a variety of environmental and biological matrices. The goal of this study was to develop a method for the determination of 17 phthalate esters in house dust. This method involved sonication extraction, sample cleanup using solid phase extraction, and isotope dilution GC/MS/MS analysis. Method detection limits (MDLs) and recoveries ranged from 0.04 to 2.93 μg/g and from 84 to 117%, respectively. The method was applied to the analysis of phthalates in 38 paired household vacuum samples (HD) and fresh dust (FD) samples. HD and FD samples compared well for the majority of phthalates detected in house dust. Data obtained from 126 household dust samples confirmed the historical widespread use of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), with a concentration range of 36 μg/g to 3840 μg/g. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BzBP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), and diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP) were also found in most samples at relatively high concentrations. Another important phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), was detected at a frequency of 98.4% with concentrations ranging from below its MDL of 0.51 μg/g to 69 μg/g.

Polyfluoroalkyl phosphate surfactants (PAPS) are used on food contact paper to impart oil/grease resistance and have been shown to be able to migrate into food. The biotransformation of the congeners belonging to this class of compounds is considered to be a potential source of perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs). In this study, two methods were developed for the determination of seven perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) and eight polyfluorinated disubstituted phosphate surfactants (diPAPS) in human milk. PFCs were extracted from milk using an ion-pairing technique; while the diPAPs extraction involved a sample clean up using solid phase extraction. Analyses of all compounds in this study were performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Of the seven PFCs analyzed in human milk, only perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was detected in eleven out of thirteen (85%) individual human milk samples analyzed, with a concentration range of

Chicken eggs from five different production types (conventional, omega-3 enriched, free range, organic and free run) were collected, when available, from three regions (west, central and east) of Canada to determine persistent organic pollutant (POP) concentrations. Total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations (∑37 congeners) in yolks from the eggs ranged from 0.162 ng g(-1) lipid to 24.8 ng g(-1) lipid (median 1.25 ng g(-1) lipid) while the concentration of the sum of the 6 indicator PCBs ranged from 0.100 ng g(-1) lipid to 9.33 ng g(-1) lipid (median 0.495 ng g(-1) lipid). Total polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/dibenzofuran (PCDD/F) concentrations ranged from 2.37 pg g(-1) lipid to 382 pg g(-1) lipid (median 9.53 pg g(-1) lipid). The 2005 WHO toxic equivalency (TEQ) ranged from 0.089 pg TEQ(PCDD/F+dioxin-like[DL]-PCB) g(-1) lipid to 12.8 pg TEQ(PCDD/F+DL-PCB) g(-1) lipid (median 0.342 pg TEQ(PCDD/F+DL-PCB) g(-1) lipid). PCB and PCDD/F concentrations were significantly different (p0.001) in egg yolks from different regions of collection. In contrast to observations in Europe, PCB and PCDD/F concentrations in Canadian egg yolks were not impacted solely by the production type (e.g., conventional, free range, organic, etc.) used to maintain the laying chickens. Additionally, only one Canadian free range yolk from western Canada (12.8 pg TEQ(PCDD/F+DL-PCB) g(-1) lipid) exceeded the European toxic equivalent concentration limits for eggs (5 pg TEQ(PCDD/F+DL-PCB) g(-1) lipid). This differs from observations in Europe where free range/home produced eggs frequently have higher POP concentrations than eggs from other production types. Median PCB dietary intake estimates based on consumption of eggs were less than 10 ng d(-1) while median PCDD/F intakes were less than 45 pg d(-1).

Human exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) has recently received special attention. It has been shown that exposure to BPA may occur through the consumption of beverages or foods that have been in contact with polycarbonate (PC) plastic containers or epoxy resins in food packaging. A BPA migration study was conducted using a variety of plastic containers, including polycarbonate baby bottles, non-PC baby bottles, baby bottle liners, and reusable PC drinking bottles. Water was used to simulate migration into aqueous and acidic foods; 10% ethanol solution to simulate migration to low- and high-alcoholic foods; and 50% ethanol solution to simulate migration to fatty foods. By combining solid-phase extraction, BPA derivatization and analysis by GC-EI/MS/MS, a very low detection limit at the ng l(-1) level was obtained. Migration of BPA at 40 degrees C ranged from 0.11 microg l(-1) in water incubated for 8 h to 2.39 microg l(-1) in 50% ethanol incubated for 240 h. Residual BPA leaching from PC bottles increased with temperature and incubation time. In comparison with the migration observed from PC bottles, non-PC baby bottles and baby bottle liners showed only trace levels of BPA. Tests for leachable lead and cadmium were also conducted on glass baby bottles since these represent a potential alternative to plastic bottles. No detectable lead or cadmium was found to leach from the glass. This study indicated that non-PC plastic baby bottles, baby bottle liners and glass baby bottles might be good alternatives for polycarbonate bottles.