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Background: Most Escherichia coli strains are harmless commensals, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in their hosts, and are infrequently responsible for product recalls due to food contamination. The present study was carried out to determine the occurrence of E. coli O157:H7 and other E. coli strains from raw and fermented (nono) milk in Benin City, Nigeria.Methodology: A total of 66 (33 raw and 33 nono) milk samples were obtained from retailers from 3 different stations in Aduwawa market, Benin City, Nigeria between January and June, 2017. Samples were analysed by cultural methods for faecal coliforms using M-Fc agar, E. coli using Chromocult coliform agar, and E. coli O157:H7 using sorbitol MacConkey agar supplemented with cefixime and potassium tellurite. Presumptive E. coli andE. coli O157:H7 isolates were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay using specific primers. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of confirmed isolates was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method, with zones of inhibition interpreted according to the guidelines of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Data were analysed using the SPSS version 21.0.Results: From the 66 nono and raw milk samples assessed in this study, all (100%) were phenotypically positive for E. coli O157:H7. A total of 19 E. coli O157:H7 and 41 other strains of E. coli were confirmed by PCR. The resistance profile of the 19 E. coli O157:H7 isolates showed 100% (19/19) resistance to penicillin G and ampicillin; 94.7% (18/19) to chloramphenicol; 89.5% (17/19) to erythromycin; and 78.9% (15/19) to sulfamethoxazole and oxytetracycline, while the sensitivity profile showed that 100% (19/19) E. coli O157:H7 isolates were sensitive to gentamicin and ofloxacin. The resistance profile of other 41 E. coli isolates showed 100% (41/41) resistance to penicillin G and ampicillin; 97.6% (40/41) to chloramphenicol; and 92.7% (38/41) to erythromycin, while 97.6% (40/41) were sensitive to gentamicin and kanamycin. Ten E. coli O157:H7 isolates (52.6%) showed extensive drug resistance pattern to 11 antibiotics in 7 antimicrobial classes with multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of 0.46.Conclusion: Findings from the present study clearly indicated that the safety and quality of fresh and fermented milk were not satisfactory and could be of public health concern. Key words: Nono, Escherichia coli; Pathotypes, Resistance index, Public health, Milk

The present study was carried out to characterize Salmonella serovars from commercial pig farms in Benin City, Nigeria. A total of 81 samples were collected from the Agricultural Development Program farms between January and June 2017. Standard culture-based and polymerase chain reaction procedures were adopted in the isolation and identification of Salmonella serovars. Antibiotic susceptibility profiles of the isolates were conducted using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method with prominent resistance determinants screened for using specific primer sets. The 84 identified Salmonella serovars include 15 Salmonella ser. Enteritidis, 11 Salmonella ser. Typhimurium, and 58 other Salmonella serovars. Phenotypic virulence factors include: hemolytic activity (51.7-100%), lipase activity (48.3-81.8%), protease activity (60.3-100%), gelatinase production (50-90.9%), DNA degrading activity (55.2-90.9%), and S-layer formation (63.8-100%). The biofilm formation profiles include nonbiofilm producers (0-12.1%), weak biofilm producers (0-20%), moderate biofilm producers (24.1-27.3%), and strong biofilm producers (48.3-72.7%). Salmonella serovars in this study harbored resistant determinants, such as tetA, tetC, ampC, sul1, sul2, sul3, floR, ermA, and ermC. The occurrence of resistance phenotype and determinants in pathogenic Salmonella serovars from pig farms is a significant public health concern, which could result in the dissemination of resistant elements within the environment.

Background: The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and antibiotic susceptibility profile of enterobacteria isolated from ready-to-eat foods within Benin metropolis, Nigeria.Methods: This was a descriptive study of 210 ready-to-eat food samples comprising fried rice, jollof rice, moi-moi, salad, oil beans, non-oil beans, and African salad obtained from roadside food vendors between January and June 2017. Isolation and identification of enterobacteria isolates were carried out using standard bacteriological and molecular methods. Antibiotic susceptibility profile was carried out using the disc diffusion method.Results: The mean mesophilic bacterial count expressed in log10 CFU/g from the ready-to-eat foods ranged from oil beans (4.3±0.52) to African salad (7.2±1.38). Escherichia coli count ranged between oil beans (1.8±0.16) and African salad (4.1±0.10). Salmonella species count ranged from non-oil beans (2.3±0.17) to African salad (5.2±0.09). Significant differences were observed from the population count of the ready-to-eat foods (p < 0.05). Bacterial isolates recovered from the ready-to-eat foods include Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloacae, Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca. The highest occurrence of the bacterial isolates was Escherichia coli 23(41.07%) while the least was Citrobacter freundii 3(5.36%) and Enterobacter cloacae 3(5.36%). The antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the bacterial isolates revealed that all bacterial isolates were 100% resistant to cefepime, ceftazidime, cefuroxime, ertapenem, and meropenem; with considerable sensitivity to kanamycin and gentamycin.Conclusion: The occurrence of these bacterial isolates in the foods constitutes public health risk to consumers as these pathogens have been associated with foodborne infections. Keywords: Antibiotic-resistant; Enterobacteria; Foodborne pathogens; Microbial quality; Public health; Street foods

Cassava peels are waste generated from cassava processing and are mostly disposed of in Nigeria by dumping indiscriminately in landfills/waste dumps where they remain as huge mounds and constitute nuisance to the environment. This study was carried out using cassava peels as substrate for the production of α – amylase from three fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Penicillium expansum) selected from twelve microbial isolates obtained from biodegrading cassava peels. The fungi were isolated using cassava peel agar medium and the α – amylase was produced by the solid state fermentation process. The α – amylase was assayed by measuring the decrease in staining power of starch with iodine reagent at 620nm and purified by using Sephadex G-100 and Sephadex C-50. The α – amylase was characterized by examining the effect of temperature, stability at 70oC, pH, substrate concentration, metal ions and EDTA. The results show that the purification fold and specific activity were 95.727, 1.053 Units/mg protein; 81.830, 0.982 Units/mg protein and 85.784, 0.686 Units/mg protein for A. flavus, A. niger and P. expansum respectively. The optimum temperature and pH were 45oC and 4.5 respectively. It was observed that the α – amylase still retained some activity after heating at 70oC for 35 min. The α – amylase activity increased with increase in substrate concentration and metal ion concentration (Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+) but decreased with increase in heavy metal ion concentration (Hg2+ and Pb2+) and EDTA. Key words: Cassava peels, α – amylase, fungi, starch and Sephadex C – 50.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major public health concern, especially the extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing (ESBL) Escherichia coli bacteria are emerging as a global human health hazard. This study characterized extended-spectrum β-lactamase Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli) isolates from farm sources and open markets in Edo State, Nigeria. A total of 254 samples were obtained in Edo State and included representatives from agricultural farms (soil, manure, irrigation water) and vegetables from open markets, which included ready-to-eat (RTE) salads and vegetables which could potentially be consumed uncooked. Samples were culturally tested for the ESBL phenotype using ESBL selective media, and isolates were further identified and characterized via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for β-lactamase and other antibiotic resistance determinants. ESBL E. coli strains isolated from agricultural farms included 68% (17/25) from the soil, 84% (21/25) from manure and 28% (7/25) from irrigation water and 24.4% (19/78) from vegetables. ESBL E. coli were also isolated from RTE salads at 20% (12/60) and vegetables obtained from vendors and open markets at 36.6% (15/41). A total of 64 E. coli isolates were identified using PCR. Upon further characterization, 85.9% (55/64) of the isolates were resistant to ≥ 3 and ≤ 7 antimicrobial classes, which allows for characterizing these as being multidrug-resistant. The MDR isolates from this study harboured ≥1 and ≤5 AMR determinants. The MDR isolates also harboured ≥1 and ≤3 beta-lactamase genes. Findings from this study showed that fresh vegetables and salads could be contaminated with ESBL-E. coli, particularly fresh produce from farms that use untreated water for irrigation. Appropriate measures, including improving irrigation water quality and agricultural practices, need to be implemented, and global regulatory guiding principles are crucial to ensure public health and consumer safety.

Five Staphylococcus saprophyticus strains were isolated from the fermented milk product nono in Nigeria and were sequenced using an Illumina MiSeq platform. The genome sizes ranged from 2.53 to 2.60 Mbp, while the GC contents ranged from 32.99 to 33.07 mol%. The genomes possessed 2,505 to 2,687 protein-coding sequences.

The demand for minimally processed vegetables (African salad) has increased partly due to its inclusion in ready-to-eat foods. Nevertheless, the associated risk of the presence of emergent foodborne pathogens, such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus might be underestimated. The present study was designed to isolate and characterize foodborne V. parahaemolyticus from minimally processed vegetables using culture-based methods and molecular approach. A total of 300 samples were examined from retail outlets between November 2018 and August 2019 from Southern Nigeria. The prevalence of vibrios from the overall samples based on the colonial proliferation of yellow, blue-green and/or green colonies on thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose agar was 74/300 (24.6%). An average of two green or blue-green colonies from respective plates was screened for V. parahaemolyticus using analytical profile index (API) 20 NE. Polymerase chain reaction further confirmed the identity of positive V. parahaemolyticus. The counts of V. parahaemolyticus ranged from 1.5 to 1,000 MPN/g. A total of 63 recovered V. parahaemolyticus were characterized further. The resistance profile of the isolates include ampicillin 57/63 (90.5%), cefotaxime 41/63 (65.1%), ceftazidime 30/63 (47.6%), amikacin 32/63 (50.8%), kanamycin 15/63 (23.8%), and oxytetracycline 16/63 (25.4%). The multiple antibiotic index ranged from 0–0.81. The formation of biofilm by the isolates revealed the following: strong formation 15/63 (23.8%), moderate formation 31/63 (49.2%), weak formation 12/63 (19.1%), and no formation 5/63 (7.9%). A total of 63/63 (100%), 9/63 (14.3%), and 20/63 (31.8%) of the isolates harbored the tox R gene, TDH-related hemolysin (trh) and thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh) determinants respectively. The isolates with O2 serogroup were most prevalent via PCR. Isolates that were resistant to tetracycline, kanamycin, and chloramphenicol possessed resistant genes. The presence of multidrug-resistant vibrios in the minimally processed vegetables constitutes a public health risk and thus necessitates continued surveillance.

The present study was carried out to characterize

Objective: To characterize multiple antibiotic resistance profile of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from aquaculture and abattoir environments. Methods: Wastewater samples were obtained from the abattoir and aquaculture environments between May 2016 and July 2016 and analysed using standard phenotypic, biochemical and PCR-based methods. Results: The mean pseudomonads count ranged from (4 × 102 ± 1.01) to (2 × 104 ± 0.10) colony-forming unit/mL in the aquaculture environment and (3 × 103 ± 0.00) to (1 × 105 ± 1.00) colony-forming unit/mL in the abattoir environment. A total of 96 isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa confirmed by PCR were thereafter selected from both aquaculture and abattoir environments and further characterized for their antimicrobial susceptibility profile by adopting the disc diffusion method. High level of resistance was observed against the aminoglycosides [gentamycin 64/96 (66.67%) and kanamycin 52/96 (54.17%)], monobactams [aztreonam 76/96 (79.17%)], carbapenems [meropenem 52/96 (54.17%)], tetracyclines [tetracycline 72/96 (75.00%)] and cephems [ceftazidime 72/96 (75.00%) and cefuroxime 48/96 (50.00%)]. Multiple antibiotic resistant index of the respective isolates ranged from 0.4 to 0.8 while multidrug resistant profile of the isolates revealed that 28 of the respective isolates were resistant to ceftazidime, cefuroxime, gentamycin, kanamycin, aztreonam which belongs to cephems, aminoglycosides and monobactam class of antimicrobials. Conclusions: Findings from the present study therefore underscores the need for effective monitoring of the abattoir and aquaculture environments as they could be the significant source for spreading antibiotic resistant bacteria within the environment.

Aeromonas species are broadly distributed in nature and agricultural environments and have been isolated from feces, bedding, and drinking water of healthy pigs. We assessed the incidence, virulence properties, and antimicrobial resistance profile of Aeromonas spp., isolated from pig feces. Antibiogram was done using the disc diffusion methods, and polymerase chain reaction was used for the detection of putative virulence genes. Identification of isolates revealed three phenotypic species with percentage distribution as follows: Aeromonas hydrophila 23 (45.1 %), Aeromonas caviae 16 (31.4 %), and Aeromonas sobria 12 (23.5 %). All Aeromonas isolates in the study were absolutely susceptible to cefotaxime and resistant to penicillin. A. cavaie and A. sobria demonstrated absolute susceptibility against ciprofloxacin and streptomycin. Aeromonas species showed varied susceptibility to cephalothin as follows: A. hydrophila 78.3 %, A. cavaie 93.7 %, and A. sobria 91.7 %. The percentage distribution of virulence genes among Aeromonas isolates were as follows: Aerolysin (aer) 74.5 %, flagellin gene (fla) 68.6 %, cytotoxin (hly A) 43.1 %, lipase (lip) 39.2 %, enterotoxic activities (ast) 31.3 %, and cytotonic gene (alt) 13.7 %. Reports from this study shows that Aeromonas species isolated from pig fecal samples are multi-drug resistant and possess virulence potential which may result to possible risk of human or animal infection and likely contamination of food and water from this sources.

The present study was carried out to determine and characterize the virulence and antimicrobial resistance profile of S. aureus from ready-to-eat (RTE) shrimp. A total of 720 RTE shrimp samples from open market in Delta State Nigeria were assessed for the virulence and antimicrobial characteristic profile of S. aureus using classical and molecular biology method. All S. aureus isolates in this study were positive for DNase, β-hemolysis, and coagulase activity phenotypically. A total of 21 (39.6%), 15 (28.3%), 10 (18.9%) and 7 (13.2%) S. aureus isolates were strong, moderate, weak and negative to biofilm formation respectively. A total of 86.8% were resistant to >3 antibiotics with 52.8% of the isolates resistant to >10 antibiotics. Multiple antibiotic resistant index ranged from 0.05 to 0.96. The most prevalent virulence determinants in this study includes 53 (100%) for coa, hla, icaA, icaB and spa. Some prevalent toxins genes include sea 29 (54.7%), see 26 (49.1%), tsst-1 11 (20.8%) and pvl 24 (45.3%). Occurrence of some antibiotic resistance genes screened based on their phenotypic resistance profile is as follows: mecA 53/53 (100%), tetK 44/44 (100%) and cat::pC194 31/31 (100%). Findings from this study pinpoint the role of contaminated seafood in the spread of drug resistant pathogenic S. aureus strains representing an important public health risk.

This study was designed to further investigate the potential mechanism of action of our previously characterized and identified marine-derived Streptomyces extracts (ESC003 and ESC012) on selected bacterial isolates from our culture bank. Time-kill kinetics, protein and lipid leakages assay, cell membrane permeability, phosphate and potassium ions efflux assay, extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentration and membrane potential (MP) were all carried out using the marine-derived Streptomyces extract to determine and understand the probable mode of action at which the extract inhibit or kill bacterial cell. The MIC of ESC003 and ESC012 ranged from 0.16 to 6.25 mg/mL while the MBC ranged from 1.25 to >10 mg/mL. On the time-kill kinetics, a reduction in mean viable cell amount was detected at respective time studied. For the impermeability of the bacterial isolates, the relative electric conductivity increased with increase in concentration and time interval of exposure. As regards the protein leakage, lipid leakage, 260 nm absorbing materials leakage, phosphate and potassium ions efflux; considerable amount of these products were leaked with increase in concentration and time of exposure to the bacterial isolates. The extracellular ATP concentration from respective bacterial isolates increased appreciably with increased concentration of exposure with a simultaneous decrease in membrane potential. Findings from this study revealed that the Streptomyces extracts revealed a significant breakthrough against susceptible bacterial isolates via the permeability of the bacterial cell membrane, and thus resulted in the outflow of ATP, electrolytes, DNA materials, and proteins. These changes lead to disruption, and eventually cell death, which were proportional to a concurrent decrease in the viability of the bacterial cell.

This study aimed to assess the antibiogram of Aeromonas strains recovered from cattle faeces and the potential pathogenic status of the isolates. The antibiogram of the Aeromonas isolates demonstrated total resistance to clindamycin oxacillin, trimethoprim, novobiocin and ticarcillin. However, Aeromonas strains were sensitive to cefotaxime, oxytetracycline and tobramycin. The Aeromonas strains from Lovedale and Fort Cox farms were found to possess some virulence genes. The percentage distribution was aer 71.4%, ast 35.7%, fla 60.7%, lip 35.7% and hlyA 25% for Lovedale farm and aer 63.1%, alt 10.5%, ast 55.2%, fla 78.9%, lip 21% and hlyA 35.9% for Fort Cox farm. Class 1 integron was present in 27% of Aeromonas isolates; the bla TEM gene was present in 34.8%, while the blaP1 class A β-lactamase gene was detected in 12.1% of the isolates. Approximately 86% of the isolates formed a biofilm on microtitre plates. The presence of multiple antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in Aeromonas isolates from cattle faeces reveals the pathogenic and infectious importance of these isolates and is of great significance to public health. The possession of a biofilm-forming capability by such isolates may lead to difficulty during the management of infection related to Aeromonas species.

Salmonella species is an important foodborne pathogen with the non-typhoidal serovars such as Enteritidis and Typhimurium as the most predominant strains. This study examines the biofilm formation, phenotypic virulence factors and cell surface characteristics of Salmonella strains from ready-to-eat shrimps. The ready-to-eat shrimps were obtained from open markets between November 2016 and October 2017 in Edo and Delta States, Nigeria. The occurrence of Salmonella strains in this study was 210/1440 (14.58%) of the ready-to-eat shrimp’s samples. The identified strains comprise of Salmonella Enteritidis 11, Salmonella Typhimurium 14 and other Salmonella spp. 20. The 45 identified Salmonella strains revealed the following virulence properties: swimming and swarming motility 45(100%); S-layer 39(86.67%); haemolytic activity 40(88.89%); lipase activity 43(95.56%); protease activity 43(95.56%); gelatinase production 43(95.56%); and DNA degrading activity 41(91.11%). The variation in the formation of biofilm-based on the diversity of Salmonella species was observed with higher percentage of Salmonella Typhimurium strains as strong biofilms producers under different environmental conditions. For surface hydrophobicity using bacterial adherence to hydrocarbons, 25(55.56%) were hydrophilic while 20(44.44%) were moderately hydrophobic from the 45 Salmonella isolates. Using salting aggregation test for surface hydrophobicity, all selected isolates 45(100%) was hydrophilic. Autoaggregation index for the 12 selected Salmonella isolates ranged from 15.2–47.2%, while the autoaggragation index for the 12 selected test bacteria ranged from 26.2–71.3%. Coaggragation between the 12 selected test bacteria and 12 Salmonella isolates ranged from 12.5–81.0%. The occurrence of pathogenic species of Salmonella from ready-to-eat shrimps could be detrimental to the consumers. Findings on the physiological conditions of biofilms formed by the foodborne pathogenic Salmonella and the cell surface characteristics therein are crucial for the advancement of methods for controlling Salmonella from ready-to-eat foods.

The harvested rainwater is an alternative water source in communities where there is limited or scarcity of water distribution system. However, contamination of roof-harvested rainwater is of immense concern to the general public health. Therefore, this study was initiated to assess the levels of physicochemical quality and heavy metal concentrations in the harvested rainwater from Oluku communities in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. The roof-harvested rainwater samples were collected from 20 independent different residential households in Oluku communities, between April 2015 and September 2015. Physicochemical analyses were carried out using standard analytical methods, and heavy metal concentrations were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The evaluation of the rainwater harvesting shows that 60% (12/20) of the roofs were made of corrugated iron sheets; aluminum sheets, 20% (4/20); asbestos, 10% (2/20); and open space was 10% (2/20). Also, the storage systems used for the storage of harvested rainwater were as follows: PVC tanks, 20% (4/20); drums, 30% (6/20); buckets, 25% (5/20); and wells, 25% (5/20). The physicochemical indicators investigated (temperature, nitrate, chlorine content, electrical conductivity, phosphate, total dissolved solids, and sulfate) were within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. However, some pH levels of the roof-harvested rainwater were acidic and below the WHO standard. Furthermore, a high value of turbidity was observed in some locations and exceeded the WHO guidelines. Though some heavy metal indicators (Zn, Na, K, and Ca) in this study were within the WHO guidelines, some locations revealed heavy metal (Cu, Fe, and Cd) concentrations slightly above the WHO guidelines. There is need for proper rainwater harvesting system and continuous monitoring of harvested rainwater for potable uses.

Enterococci are primarily inhabitants of the intestinal mucosa of animals and humans; however, they can also be recovered from water, soil, plants, insects and fermented food products. The aim of this study was to carry out quality indices survey for Enterococcus species from the abattoir environment in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. A total of 36 samples were obtained from two different abattoirs which comprised of water source (n = 12), effluent from point of usage (n = 12) and effluent from point of discharge (n = 12) between February and July, 2017. Physicochemical variables of the effluents were assessed using standard analytical techniques. The isolation of Enterococcus isolates was carried out using standard culture-based techniques. Analytical profile index 20E (API 20E) was used to confirm the identity of the Enterococcus species. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the Enterococcus species was determined using disk diffusion method. The mean ranges of physicochemical parameters of the water samples were: pH (5.36 ± 0.85- 7.35 ± 0.28), phosphate (0.39 ± 0.31 - 21.28 ± 0.01 mg/L), dissolved oxygen (0.83 ± 1.94 - 6.13 ± 0.13 mg/L) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (35.66 ± 0.13 - 797.10 ± 0.35 mg/L). The mean range of mesophilic bacteria count was (6.51 ± 0.61) ×107 - (1.92 ± 0.11) × 108 cfu/ml and Enterococcus species- (6.66 ± 1.63) ×101– (1.16 ± 0.05) ×104 cfu/ml. The percentage occurrence of Enterococcus species were: E. faecalis (29.7%), E. faecium (35.9%), E. durans (14.1%), E. casseliflavus (12.5%) and E. hirae (7.8%). A total of 23 (35.9%) of Enterococcus species were resistant to 9 antibiotics (PENR , PTZR , ETPR , MEMR , TETR , CLIR , CROR , CTXR , and VANR ) which belong to 6 groups of antimicrobial with a multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of 0.64. The presence of multiple antibiotic resistant indexes in Enterococcus species is of significance to ublic health. Findings from this study could be used as a baseline study to investigate outbreaks of pathogenic and multidrug resistant enterococci infections in abattoir environments.Keywords: Enterococcus, Abattoir, Antimicrobial resistance, Environment, Multidrug resistance

The rising rural-to-urban migration across Nigeria is driving demand for more food and meat and thus the increasing influx of livestock such as cattle to abattoir and thus the proliferation of liarages. This study was therefore initiated to 1) Qualitatively evaluate the potential impact of the selected liarages on their immediate vicinity and 2) Evaluate the extent and magnitude of the pollution associated with the liarages in terms of physico-chemical and microbiological properties of the environmental media in two southern Nigeria’s agglomerations (Benin city, Edo and Warri, Delta States). Soil and surface runoff water were collected from four randomly selected liarages and borehole water samples near each liarages in Warri. A general qualitative evaluation of the liarages was undertaken while samples collected were analyzed for physico-chemical and microbiological properties using standard analytical procedures. The result shows that all the liarages were littered with concentrated foul-smelling animal wastes (solid and liquid) that were unpleasant to see in major urban centers. Also, they had poorly constructed sheds or shacks against the background of medium to high value residential homes that could lower property values in these urban agglomerations. Except for pH, the physico-chemical properties such as phosphate, nitrate, Organic carbon and turbidity were relatively high and declined in the down slope positions relative to the main liarages; Top soil samples had total coliform count ranging from 3.3×104 to 5.0×104 ± 2.12; fecal coliform ranged from 2.6×103 to 2.8×104 ± 42.42 while E. coli ranged from 2.1×103 to 7.7×103 ± 2.82 across all sampled locations. Borehole water for drinking was slightly burdened with coliform bacteria ranging from 1.0×101 ± 0.07 to 8.2×101 ± 3.53. Enterobacter spp was the most frequently isolated microbial species identified in all the runoff water that could potentially contaminate surface water bodies. We conclude that liarages can negatively impact the urban landscape aesthetically as well as air, water, land/soil quality within the immediate vicinity and thus could lower property values. It is thereby recommended that liarages be regulated with respect to location and number, while engineered liarages with septic tanks is recommended as alternatives, with routine manure removal and use for growing horticultural crops in these major agglomerations.

The detection of genes responsible for Aeromonas virulence is a vital tool in establishing the potential pathogenicity of the bacteria, as these virulence genes may act alone or in synergy in the establishment of infections. Freshwater and wastewater mixed liquor samples were collected from Kat river and Fort Beaufort wastewater treatment plant in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction was utilized for the amplification of the different genes coding for virulence. All virulence associated genes screened (alt, lip, fla, aer, ast, hlyA) were detected in at least one Aeromonas isolates. In fresh water sample, virulence genes were distributed as follows: lip (67%), aer (43%), alt (33%), fla (62%), ast (10%), and hlyA (86%), while in wastewater samples the occurrence were as follows: lip (92%), aer (21%), alt (54%), fla (83%), ast (29%), and hlyA (88%). The presence of these virulence genes in environmental Aeromonas isolates is of concern to public health as these organisms are potential pathogens in the environment and the virulence determinants could be transferred to aquatic organisms and humans by one mechanism or the other.

The continuous misuse of antimicrobials in food animals both orally and subcutaneously as therapeutic and prophylactic agents to bacterial infections could be detrimental and contribute to the dissemination of resistant clones in livestock production. The present study was carried out to determine the antibiogram and virulence gene characteristics of Enterococcus species from pig farms. A total of 300 faecal samples were obtained from two pig farms in Benin City between February and July 2016. Standard culture-based and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay were adopted in the detection and characterization of the Enterococcus species. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile was determined using disc diffusion method. A total of 268 enterococci isolates were recovered from both farms investigated. In Farm A, 94/95 (99%) of E. faecalis isolates were resistant to clindamycin; while 23/25 (92%) of E. faecium isolates were resistant to clindamycin. In farm B, all E. faecalis isolates 119/119 (100%) were resistant to clindamycin; while 26/29 (90%) of E. faecium isolates were resistant to clindamycin. Virulence gene detected in the enterococci isolates includes aggregation (asa1) [Farm A (E. faecalis 66%, E. faecium 76%), Farm B (E. faecalis 71%, E. faecium 13%)] and others. Multidrug resistant profile of the isolates revealed that 17/95 (18%) of E. faecalis and 3/25 (12%) of E. faecium isolates from Farm A as well as, 16/119 (14%) of E. faecalis and 5/29 (17%) of E. faecium isolates from Farm B were resistant to CLIR, PENR, ERYR, GENR, TETR, MEMR, KANR, and PTZR. The high level of resistance observed in the study and their virulence gene signatures, calls for effective environmental monitoring to circumvent the environmental dissemination of resistant pathogenic clones. Thus environmental hygiene should be provided to food animals to prevent the proliferation and spread of resistant bacteria.

Pseudomonas species are opportunistic pathogens with implications in a wide range of diseases including cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia. Because of their status as multidrug resistant (MDR) and extremely drug resistant (XDR) bacteria Pseudomonas species represent a threat to public health. Prevalence, antibiogram and associated antibiotic resistant genes of Pseudomonas species isolated from freshwater and mixed liquor environments in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa were assessed. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based technique was used to identify the isolates and screen for antibiotic resistant genes. The result shows occurrence of Pseudomonas spp. in freshwater and mixed liquor as follows: 71.42% and 37.5% (P. putida), 14.28% and 31.25% (P. flourescens), 7.14% and 6.25% (P. aeruginosa) and 7.14% and 25% for other Pseudomonas species respectively. Disk diffusion antibiogram of the Pseudomonas isolates from the two locations showed 100% resistance to penicillin, oxacillin, clindamycin, rifampicin and 100% susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and gentamicin with varied percentage resistances to cephalothin, nalidixic acid, tetracycline, and ampicillin. The blaTEM antibiotic resistant gene was detected in 12.5% of P. putida, 57.14% of P. fluorescens, 100% P. aeruginosa and 40% in other Pseudomonas species. Similarly, Integrons conserved segment were detected in 12.5% of P. putida, 57.14% of P. fluorescens, 100% of P. aeruginosa and 40% of other Pseudomonas species. The presence of blaTEM gene and integrons conserved segment in some of the isolates is worrisome and suggest Pseudomonas species as important reservoirs of multidrug resistance genes in the Eastern Cape Province environment.

Abattoir effluent quality assessment is essential in providing sustainable water resource management developments. This study was carried out to assess the impact of abattoir effluent discharges on the physicochemical qualities of a receiving watershed in an urban community. Some physicochemical indicator variables of the effluent discharge and the receiving watershed were determined using standard analytical procedure. Ranges of values obtained from the study were: pH ( 5.79 ± 0.66 - 6.58 ± 0.46), electrical conductivity, EC (23.00 ± 13.89 - 305.33 ± 147.05) μS/cm, temperature, T (29.10 ± 1.01 - 29.80 ± 0.34) C, total dissolved solids, TDS (11.33 ± 6.65 - 153.00 ± 73.72) mg/L, total suspended solids, TSS (7.50 ± 0.78 - 30.93 ± - 5.08) mg/L, alkalinity, ALK (6.10 ± 0.00 - 63.03 ± 43.81) mg/L, chloride, Cl - (5.91 ± 2.04 - 29.57 ± 7.38) mg/L, calcium, Ca 2+ (1.92 ± 0.00 - 19.66 ± 7.29) mg/L, magnesium, Mg 2+ (0.52 ± 0.22 - 5.05 ± 2.42) mg/L, total + hardness, TH (7.47 ± 3.32 - 69.92 ± 27.37) mg/L, Sodium, Na + (1.71 ± 0.18 - 12.86 ± 2.29 ) mg/L, Potassium, K + (0.75 ± 0.35 - 9.33 ± 2.23) mg/L, turbidity (8.66 ± 1.35 - 63.12 ± 12.43) NTU, dissolved oxygen, DO (1.93 ± 0.41 - 5.86 ± 1.00) mg/L, biochemical oxygen demand, BOD (2.80 ± 0.60 - 33.06 ± 14.36) mg/L, chemical oxygen demand, COD (14.00 ± 2.00 - 60.66 ± 12.70) mg/L, sulphate, SO 4 2- (0.84 ± 0.61 - 7.18 ± 0.88) mg/L, phosphate, PO 3 -4 (0.01 ± 0.00 - 2.10 ± 1.22) mg/L, nitrate, NO 3 - (0.37 ± 0.42 - 8.70 ± 1.33) mg/L and ammonium NH 4 + (0.02 ± 0.01 - 2.46 ± 0.78) mg/L. The above data were compared with the recommended 4 permissible limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Federal Ministry of Environment (FME). Comparative correlation analysis of the effect of abattoir effluents on the receiving watershed from the studied locations revealed significant positive and negative correlations at probability value ( p -value) of 0.05 or 0.01. The study revealed that the effluents discharged from the abattoir facilities pose serious health and environmental risk to communities which rely on the receiving watershed as primary source for domestic or recreation activities. Keywords: Abattoir effluent; Pollution; Aquatic environment; Waste disposal; Water quality

This study was carried out to assess the microbial, physicochemical and heavy metal characteristics of soil samples from five different waste collection sites within the University of Benin, Benin City and evaluated using standard analytical and classical microbiological methods. The heavy metal concentration includes Zn (4.45±0.00 - 5.76±0.02 mg g −l ); Cd (1.59±0.00 - 2.54±0.00 mg g −l ); and Fe (1.02±0.02 - 1.07±0.00 mg g −l ). The physicochemical properties include pH (4.91±0.01 - 5.82±0.04); TOC (6.49±0.01 - 7.65±0.02 %); NO 2 − (29.32±0.07 - 32.81±0.11 mg g −l ); and SO 4 2− (47.30±0.12 - 63.25±0.04 mg g −l ). The mean of culturable heterotrophic and coliform bacteria ranged from 4.03×10 7 ± 0.35 - 4.51×10 8 ± 0.12 CFU/g and 1.02×10 4 ± 0.12 - 3.10×10 5 ± 0.02 CFU/g respectively. At p -value < 0.01 level EC significantly correlates total heterotrophic bacteria ( r = 0.971); coliform bacteria significantly correlate NO 3 − ( r = 0.989); while clay significantly but negatively correlates coliform bacteria ( r = -0.989). Some of the bacteria isolated and identified from the waste collection sites include Klebsiella oxytoca , Enterobacter aerogenes , Staphylococcus aureus , Pseudomonas putida , and Bacillus macerans . Findings from this study reveal that the municipal solid waste on the collection sites has impacts on the indicator variables of the resident soil as well as serving as breeding sites for pathogenic organisms. Keywords: solid waste, environmental hazard, soil quality, pathogens

This study is conducted to assess the quality of harvested rainwater. Rooftop rainwater samples are collected between April and September 2015 from Ugbihioko village near Benin City, Nigeria. Heavy metal concentration and physicochemical quality are determined with the use of standard analytical techniques for water quality, and the results are compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) acceptable limits for drinking water. Of the different water quality parameters, the results show that temperature is within WHO drinking water standards for all locations, but pH, turbidity, sulfate, chloride, and nitrate concentrations vary considerably and do not meet the standards for all locations. Regarding the maximum acceptable concentration (MAC), electrical conductivity is well below the MAC for all cases; the heavy metals copper and iron are above the MAC for all cases; the light metals sodium and potassium are below the MAC for all cases. Lead is above the MAC for all locations, except for in one location; and selenium varied, with some sites having selenium concentrations above the MAC. The results from this study show that public health education or advising is vital for mitigating the possible risks that can be linked to the use of harvested rainwater without treatment.

Poultry meat and its products are widely consumed by humans globally, however, Aeromonas infections in poultry have been reported in different parts of the world with devastating effects. This study was carried out to assess the antibiogram and biofilm forming potential of Aeromonas isolated from chicken fecal samples. Aeromonas isolates were screened for antibiotic susceptibility using antibiotics disk and biofilm producing potentials on abiotic surfaces. Nineteen isolates recovered from chicken feces were 100% sensitive to ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and the tetracyclines. About 53% of Aeromonas isolates were resistant to erythromycin and 47% resistant to streptomycin. Eight isolates (42.1%) were found to be moderate producers of biofilm, 31.6% (6/19) were weak producers of biofilm, 10.5% (2/19) were non biofilm producers while 15.8% (3/19) were strong producers. The present investigation shows a prevalence of potentially pathogenic Aeromonas strains in chicken feces, suggesting potential group at risk for Aeromonas infection which could be dissemination to other animals or humans with close contact and the wider community.

Salmonella spp. infections are considered as the most common food-borne disease globally. The contamination of food products with Salmonella has given rise to severe health and economic challenges. This study assessed the prevalence of Salmonella in the faeces of cows and goats in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, their antibiotic resistance patterns as well as antibiotic-resistant gene determinant. Antibiotic disc was used for antibiogram profiles while polymerase chain reaction was employed for the detection of antibiotic-resistant genes. A total of 150 Salmonella were isolated from the faecal samples. Eighty two (55 %) isolates were recovered from cow faeces while 68 (45 %) were isolated from goat faeces. All Salmonella isolates were sensitive to ciprofloxacin (100 %) while 95 % were sensitive to ofloxacin. Also, a high sensitivity of 93 and 89 % was observed against nalidixic acid and ofloxacin, respectively. Salmonella isolates demonstrated moderate sensitivity against cephalothin (70 %), chloramphenicol (75 %) and minocycline (68 %) while 49 % were resistant to tetracycline and erythromycin. The prevalence of the antibiotic-resistant genes in Salmonella isolates were detected as follows: integron conserved segment 28 % (42/150), bla TEM gene 19.3 % (29/150), bla pse1 7.3 % (11/150) and bla amp C 4.7 % (7/150). The results obtained in the study imply that cow and goat faeces could be potential reservoirs of Salmonella and could possibly cause infections as a result of contamination of food products. There is a need for a surveillance system to track resistance patterns of Salmonella circulating in South Africa.

The antioxidant, phytochemical and nutritional properties of acetone, methanol and aqueous extracts of the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (Linn) were investigated to evaluate the therapeutic and nutritional potential of the leaves of this plant. The antioxidant of the plant extracts were assessed against 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) and ferric reducing agent. Total phenolics, flavonoids, flavonols and proanthocyanidins were determined to assess their corresponding effect on the antioxidant activity of this plant. The extracts exhibited DPPH and ABTS(·+) radical scavenging activities, which was comparable to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). The phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, saponin, steroids, cardiacglycoside, flavonoid, terpenoids and phenol. The proximate analysis confirms that the leaves contain appreciable amount of ash, crude protein, lipids, fibre and carbohydrates. The macro and micro elements and constituents revealed that the leaves contain significant amount of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, copper, nitrogen, and manganese. This study shows that the leaf can be used as a therapeutic agent and justifies its application in folkloric medicine.

The antioxidant, phytochemical and nutritional properties of acetone, methanol and aqueous extracts of the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (Linn) were investigated to evaluate the therapeutic and nutritional potential of the leaves of this plant. The antioxidant of the plant extracts were assessed against 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azinobis-(3- ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS) and ferric reducing agent. Total phenolics, flavonoids, flavonols and proanthocyanidins were determined to assess their corresponding effect on the antioxidant activity of this plant. The extracts exhibited DPPH and ABTS .+ radical scavenging activities, which was comparable to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). The phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, saponin, steroids, cardiacglycoside, flavonoid, terpenoids and phenol. The proximate analysis confirms that the leaves contain appreciable amount of ash, crude protein, lipids, fibre and carbohydrates. The macro and micro elements and constituents revealed that the leaves contain significant amount of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, copper, nitrogen, and manganese. This study shows that the leaf can be used as a therapeutic agent and justifies its application in folkloric medicine. Keywords : Ocimum gratissimum , oxidative stress, polyphenolic, proximate composition, therapeutic activity

Aeromonasspecies are well distributed in freshwater environments, and their natural susceptibility to antimicrobials renders them interesting candidates for the survey of antimicrobial resistance in freshwater milieu. Water samples were collected from Kat and Tyume rivers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, and a total of 45 isolates identified asAeromonasspecies were recovered from the two rivers. AllAeromonasisolates were resistant to oxacillin, penicillin, clindamycin, cephalothin, vancomycin, and rifamycin, while appreciable susceptibilities (89.3 : 94.1%, 82.1 : 94.1%, 85.7 : 88.2%, and 92.9 : 88.2%) were observed against ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, nitrofurantoin, and gentamicin from Kat and Tyume rivers, respectively. Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) indices ranged from 0.016 to 0.044 for the two rivers. Class 1 integron was detected in about 20% of the isolates, and all the isolates except one showed ability to produce biofilmin vitroas weak producers (53.33%), moderate producers (15.56%), and strong producers (28.9%). This investigation provides a baseline data on antibiotic resistance as well as the adhesive characteristics ofAeromonasisolates from Tyume and Kat rivers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.

The detection of genes responsible for Aeromonas virulence is a vital tool in establishing the potential pathogenicity of the bacteria, as these virulence genes may act alone or in synergy in the establishment of infections. Freshwater and wastewater mixed liquor samples were collected from Kat river and Fort Beaufort wastewater treatment plant in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Polymerase chain reaction was utilized for the amplification of the different genes coding for virulence. All virulence associated genes screened (alt, lip, fla, aer, ast, hlyA) were detected in at least one Aeromonas isolates. In fresh water sample, virulence genes were distributed as follows: lip (67%), aer (43%), alt (33%), fla (62%), ast (10%), and hlyA (86%), while in wastewater samples the occurrence were as follows: lip (92%), aer (21%), alt (54%), fla (83%), ast (29%), and hlyA (88%). The presence of these virulence genes in environmental Aeromonas isolates is of concern to public health as these organisms are potential pathogens in the environment and the virulence determinants could be transferred to aquatic organisms and humans by one mechanism or the other.

Pseudomonas aeruginosais an opportunistic pathogen in environmental waters with a high prevalence of multidrug resistance. In this study the synergistic efficacy of synergy antibiotic combinations in multidrug-resistantP. aeruginosastrains isolated from an abattoir effluent was investigated. Water samples were processed using membrane filtration;Pseudomonaswas isolated with Pseudomonas Isolation Agar and confirmed using polymerase chain reaction with specie-specific primer. Susceptibility studies andin vitrosynergy interaction testing were carried out, employing agar dilution and Etest procedure, respectively. Resistance was noted for clinically relevant antipseudomonal agents tested. Finding from antibiotic synergy interaction studies revealed that cefepime, imipenem, and meropenem combined with amikacin resulted in statistically significant (P<0.0001)in vitroantibiotics synergy interaction, indicating the possible use of this regimen in treatment of pseudomonal infections.

We assessed the polyphenolic contents and antioxidant potential of the aqueous, ethanol and methanol stem bark extracts of Jatropha curcas. The total phenol, flavonoids, flavonols and proanthocyanidin contents of the extracts were evaluated to determine their effect on the antioxidant property of this plant, using standard phytochemical methods. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of ethanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of the plant were also assessed against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing, nitric oxide (NO), superoxide anion, (O(2) (-)) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) using spectroscopic methods and results were compared with that of butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) and ascorbic acid as standards. The concentrations of different classes of phenolic compounds were higher in methanol and ethanol extracts compared to aqueous extracts. There was correlation between total phenol, total flavonoids, total flavonol and total proanthocyanidins (r = 0.996, 0.978, 0.908, and 0.985) respectively. There was correlations between the amount of phenolic compounds and percentage inhibition of DPPH radicals scavenging activity of the extract (r = 0.98). Findings from the present study indicated that J. curcas is a potential source of natural antioxidants and may be a good candidate for pharmaceutical plant based products.