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This review highlights the differential contributions of multiple neurochemical systems to temperament traits related and those that are unrelated to emotionality, even though these systems have a significant overlap. The difference in neurochemical biomarkers of these traits is analysed from the perspective of the neurochemical model, Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) that uses multi-marker and constructivism principles. Special attention is given to a differential contribution of hypothalamic–pituitary hormones and opioid neuropeptides implicated in both emotional and non-emotional regulation. The review highlights the role of the mu-opioid receptor system in dispositional emotional valence and the role of the kappa-opioid system in dispositional perceptual and behavioural alertness. These opioid receptor (OR) systems, microbiota and cytokines are produced in three neuroanatomically distinct complexes in the brain and the body, which all together integrate dispositional emotionality. In contrast, hormones could be seen as neurochemical biomarkers of non-emotional aspects of behavioural regulation related to the construction of behaviour in fast-changing and current situations. As examples of the role of hormones, the review summarised their contribution to temperament traits of Sensation Seeking (SS) and Empathy (EMP), which FET considers as non-emotionality traits related to behavioural orientation. SS is presented here as based on (higher) testosterone (fluctuating), adrenaline and (low) cortisol systems, and EMP, as based on (higher) oxytocin, reciprocally coupled with vasopressin and (lower) testosterone. Due to the involvement of gonadal hormones, there are sex and age differences in these traits that could be explained by evolutionary theory. There are, therefore, specific neurochemical biomarkers differentiating (OR-based) dispositional emotionality and (hormones-based) body’s regulation in fast-changing events. Here we propose to consider dispositional emotionality associated with OR systems as emotionality in a true sense, whereas to consider hormonal ensembles regulating SS and EMP as systems of behavioural orientation and not emotionality.

On the basis of the results of representative sociological surveys conducted both in Russia and abroad, the article addresses the problem of the impact of education on the level and quality of civic participation. The theoretical and methodological basis of the research is a set of provisions dealing with the complexity, variability, and country-specific educational effects in the socio-political sphere. Special attention is paid to the problem of interaction of educational capacities of individuals, social groups, and society as a whole, in various social and political practices. It is shown that depending on the nature and content of the interaction, it is possible to talk about absolute, relative and cumulative effects of education in the field of civic participation. Higher education leads to increased interest of citizens in various forms and practices of public and political activities, and increases motivation for greater self-expression and self-realization. The analysis also revealed that the educational potential of Russians is still poorly realized in the socio-political sphere, which in turn limits the possibility of the formation of new relevant knowledge, concepts and ideas about more effective organization of the life of Russian society. Education and civic participation are complex social phenomena, and the relationship between them is complex and dynamic. It is in the process of day-to-day involvement, and not in the outside the legal framework of extreme events that there is a confirmation of civic values, relevant skills, formed identity, and social reality can be cognized.

This article draws upon the results of a representative survey to study civic engagement of Russians belonging to different generations. Special emphasis is paid to the younger generation as the most active and dynamic social and age group. The role of different generations in driving social and political change is especially relevant for Russian society, since over the past few decades, it has experienced dramatic fluctuations of social and political attitudes, including the inversion of the people’s value sets, rises and falls in civic engagement, and changes in the political agenda. The theoretical and methodological basis of the research comprises a set of arguments in favor of the assumption that civic engagement may have different features depending on the generation. In particular, wehighlight that in societies that experience dramatic changes, different generations tend to be separated by a deep gap when it comes to motivation and assessment of the possibilities and future prospects of civic participation. Our findings show that young Russians, whose first social adjustment took place in a post-Soviet environment, first and foremost view civic engagement as a means of self-expression and self-fulfillment, which reflects the entire range of the younger generation’s interests. In turn, civic engagement among seniors mostly takes institutionalized and conventional forms: more often than not, as the result of adapting to the existing social and political environment. We conclude that in modern Russian society, civic engagement is more an ambivalent rather than topical democratic phenomenon, and it is in this capacity that we observe it in every generation.

The article, on the basis of the sociological survey results, deals with the attitude of Russians to the possibility of their rights and freedoms protection. The main attention is paid to how the willingness of Russians to protect their rights is related to their perceptions of a just society and the real possibilities of their participation in social and political activities. It is shown that the willingness of different social groups to actively protect their rights is caused by a specific set of factors, motivations and opportunities for a civic participation. Youth, citizens of working age and with higher education, as well as citizens identify themselves to a higher social class, are ready to actively defend their rights. However, worsening of socio-economic conditions and narrowing of institutional possibilities to solve existing problems can lead to activation of citizens in their struggle for the rights at any territorial community, region, social group or field of activity. It is concluded that the protection of socio-economic rights is more important for the Russians than the protection of political rights. Certainly, civic activity is an important factor in ensuring social and political stability, reducing risk of radicalization in public sentiments and growth of offenses.

This paper studies the settlement-type factor that affects the formation of value orientations and related political attitudes of Russians. There is a deep intersettlement differentiation in modern Russia. The typology of settlements takes into account not only the structural elements but also their level of development. The agglomeration of Moscow and Saint Petersburg are at the top of the hierarchical system of settlements. The dissemination of innovations in the social space of Russia derives from the largest and most developed to the less developed types of communities. Different types of settlements determine the specificity of value orientations, which the current article discusses as models of “megalopolis” and “remote place”. These models detect unifying and dividing values that are located in the complex and contradictory interaction and dynamics. The majority of Russians are united in their quest for social justice and stability. At the same time, the residents of the metropolis have a more pronounced focus on the individual, rational, and activist values, whereas the residents of the provinces have collectivist, regulatory, and paternalistic values. In addition, the value structure of the residents of the metropolis is characterised by its diversity, simultaneous presence of the values and attitudes of the liberal, conservative and social-democratic orientation, the possibility of choice and, consequently, greater individual freedom Megacities concentrate resources to develop new guidelines to form the value of the future, whereas the province provides stability and continuity A balance between these two opposites can ensure dynamism and the continuity of social development.

The article investigates the impact of sport on the processes of socialization of young people, demonstrated the efficacy of the use of new social practices involving young people at risk in sports. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of new sports and new forms of organization of sports life of youth, reveal the essence of the “new physical education”.

Objective: Temperament and mental illness have been linked to the same systems of behavioural regulation. A temperament model, carefully structured to respond to subtle differences within systems of behavior regulation, should exhibit distinct temperament patterns in the presence of mental illness. Previous comparisons of temperament profiles in mental disorders used mostly emotionality-related traits. In contrast, the Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) model differentiates not only between emotionality traits, but also between traits related to physical, verbal and mental aspects of behavior and maps 12 functional aspects of behavior to temperament traits as well as to symptoms of mental illnesses. This article reports on the coupling of sex, age and temperament traits with Major Depression using the FET framework. Method: Intake records of 467, ages 17-24, 25-45, 46-65, 66-84 were examined, with temperament assessed by the Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (based on the FET). Results: The presence of Major Depression was associated with changes in mean temperament scores on 9 of the 12 traits. The results were in line with the DSM-5 criteria of fatigue (patients with MD reported a significant decrease in three types of endurance - motor-physical, social-verbal and mental), of psychomotor retardation (a significant decrease in physical and social-verbal tempo) and of worthlessness (as low Self-Confidence). The results also showed that three new symptoms, high Impulsivity, high Neuroticism and diminished Plasticity, should be considered as depressive symptoms in future versions of the DSM. As a significant negative result, no interaction of age or sex (with the exception of the Self-Confidence scale) with MD was found for temperament traits. Conclusions: The value of differentiating between physical, social and mental aspects of behaviour is demonstrated in the differential effects of major depression and gender. The value of differentiating between endurance, dynamical and orientation-related aspects of behaviour is demonstrated in the differential effects of age. The deleterious impact of Major Depression on temperament scores appeared to be similar across all age groups. The appearance of high impulsivity, neuroticism and low plasticity deserve further study as associated factors in future versions of the DSM/ICD.

Temperament traits and mental illness have been linked to varying degrees of imbalances in neurotransmitter systems of behavior regulation. If a temperament model has been carefully structured to reflect weak imbalances within systems of behavior regulation, then in the presence of mental illness, these profiles should exhibit distinct patterns consistent with symptoms of mental illness. In contrast to other temperament models used in studies of anxiety, the Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET) model differentiates not only between emotionality traits, but also between traits related to physical, social-verbal and mental aspects of behavior. This paper analyzed the predictions of the FET model, which maps 12 functional aspects of behavior to symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder as described in the DSM/ICD. As an example, the paper describes a study of the coupling of sex, age and temperament traits with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) using the FET framework. The intake records of 116 clients in treatment with confirmed diagnosis of GAD in a private psychological practice were compared using ANOVA against records of 146 healthy clients using their scores on the FET-based questionnaire, in age groups 17-24, 25-45, 46-65. Patients with GAD in all age groups reported significantly lower Social Endurance, Social Tempo, Probabilistic reasoning (but not in physical aspects of behavior) and higher Neuroticism than healthy individuals, however no effects on the scales of Motor Endurance or Tempo were found. These findings show the benefits of differentiation between motor-physical and social-verbal aspects of behavior in psychological assessment of mental disorders.