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In the framework of territorial management, geomorphological mapping can be considered a fundamental activity because it offers a comprehensive source of information (morphogenetic, morphographic, morphometric, morphodynamic, morphocronological ones) and an explanatory presentation of landforms, including also data on bedrocks and structures. Compared with other research activities carried out in the field of geomorphosite identification, classification, and assessment, geomorphosite mapping has not received the same strong consideration in the past. A considerable impulse to this topic has been recently given by several authors in Europe, where some methods for the cartographic representation of geomorphosites have been proposed, aimed at Earth Heritage promotion and protection.Starting from these premises, our paper illustrates a new methodology, developed by the Working Group “Geomorphosites and Geodiversity” of the Italian Association of Physical Geography and Geomorphology (AIGeo), for mapping geosites on geomorphological maps edited by the National Geological Survey, i.e. cartographic documents directed to public boards in territorial planning and sustainable management of a territory. The proposed legend and related symbols will be illustrated through examples developed at a different scale and within different geological and geomorphological contexts in the Italian territory.The integration of geoheritage and geomorphological data in a single cartographic document can be considered an innovative and useful tool both for geoconservation and sustainable environmental management. Such a map shows several advantages: (i) it offers an overview of both landforms and processes and the main geoheritage peculiarities of a territory; (ii) it provides information on the state of activity of processes, which can help to evaluate the state of conservation and vulnerability of geosites or the degree of natural and anthropic risks; (iii) it highlights geosite boundaries useful for decision making in management; (iv) it represents a functional tool to optimise decisional processes within Territorial Planning, Environmental Impact Assessment procedures and Protection Actions of Natural Heritage.

Landforms characterized by high scientific value (i.e. geomorphosites) might undergo modifications due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors (natural and human-induced processes). In the framework of geoheritage analyses, the assessment of the value (scientific or additional) of geomorphosites should be performed side by side with the analysis on the risk of degradation (fragility and vulnerability). A multidisciplinary method is proposed for the analysis of landforms that are potentially fragile but outstanding for their scientific value related to geological, geomorphological and ecological values. A geomorphological map was produced for the glacial plateaux of the Loana Valley (Central-Western Italian Alps), where an outstanding geomorphosite was detected: the Cortenuovo Calcareous Ridge. The site is herein analysed in terms of the representativeness of geological and (paleo)geomorphological features as well as for its support role to the ecosystem. For dissemination purposes, a simplified version of the geomorphological map (i.e., geomorphological box) was prepared for the site. Specific morphometric and dendrogeomorphological analyses were then performed to investigate more in detail the risk of degradation of the site. It resulted to be a spatially restricted hotspot of geodiversity, characterized by an average surface lowering rate (0.44 cm/y on average) comparable to that achieved in similar geomorphologic contexts in the Alpine environment. The obtained results testify to a potential vulnerability to natural processes of this highly scientific valued site, which will surely benefit from a legal recognition as a component of geoheritage, with a specific regulation for its protection, that could prove to be strategic.

During the last years the interest towards urban areas as possible sites for educational activities concerning the Earth Sciences has been growing. The “Urban Geology” project developed by the Earth Sciences Department of the Universita degli Studi di Milano offers to high school teachers a model of a low-cost outdoor geological activity, with a particular focus on the importance of rocks as georesources and heritage stones in architecture.In a first phase, a pilot itinerary in the centre of Milan for discovering rocks in architecture was structured involving the undergraduate students of Natural Sciences and then proposed to teachers attending the TFA (Tirocinio Formativo Attivo) and in the frame of the “Piano Lauree Scientifiche”. The Milan city centre is characterized by a lithological geodiversity that allows the observation of a great number of rocks of different origin and provenance, most of which are also widespread in the neighbouring cities. For each of the identified rocks, a short guide is made available to the teachers, with lithological description, petrographic classification and additional information on the origin, provenance and use in historical buildings. The guide may be used as preparatory material before the guided excursion, or as a support for more detailed studies after the visit, also offering ideas for interdisciplinary connections (art and architecture, history, economy). The supplied material may also help the teachers in organizing their own itinerary.The itinerary was proposed as didactic activity guided by Department tutors to high school classes (around 190 students up to now), as well as to the general public during the “Settimana del Pianeta Terra 2018” (80 participants).After the first positive experiences with the guided excursion, the project was further developed in the framework of the “Progetti Alternanza Scuola – Lavoro” (School – Work Alternance Projects) and was carried out by a total of 75 students from high schools located in Milan, San Donato Milanese, Bergamo and Lecco. The data collection on the field was performed using a specific multimedial tool, the GeoODK Collect App (http://ona.io/mzucali; http://ona.io/ibollati) for Smartphone. Through such projects, groups of students were able to create itineraries of Urban Geology in their own cities, illustrate their work to the public and share the data online. A workflow to reproduce the activity also in other areas is finally proposed.

Reading the physical landscape is a key-point in acquiring knowledge in Physical geography and Geomorphology, becoming aware of the complex relations these disciplines have with human settlements, natural resources and ecosystems. Structuring proper educational fieldworks addressed to students for answering simple scientific questions, is strategic. Many single landforms offer good opportunities for fieldwork and educational approaches to understand physical landscape evolution. Among these, polygenic debris cones due to water, gravity and snow action, are common features in the mountain landscape. The most representative ones along a touristic thematic trail in the Loana Valley (Western Italian Alps) were selected for developing new educational approaches. Different testing phases were, then, set to refine the educational strategy. The results allowed to design a procedure for structuring educational fieldwork opportunities addressed to students, in the specific, of the secondary school of second level.

Geoheritage studies periodically propose assessment methodologies addressed to quantify the value of sites of interests towards geoconservation and/or promotion. Loess outcrops in the Po Plain Loess basin (Northern Italy) represent potential geoheritage sites, allowing to reconstruct glacial and interglacial cycles, testifying evidence of paleoseismicity, and preserving traces of Palaeolithic human exploitation along the foreland of the Alpine and Apennine ranges. In this contribution, firstly we propose a brief review on the loess sites in the framework of geoheritage studies. Then, we evaluate the 6 most significant loess outcrops scattered across the Po Plain Loess Basin (Monte Netto Hill, Val Sorda Sequence, Gajum Section, Ghiardo Plateau, Valenza Section, Torino Hill) applying a quantitative methodology aimed at ranking each locality respect to a benchmark site — the Romanengo Plateau — which is the sole loess site included in the Italian Inventory of Geosites. The 70% of sites obtained a global value higher than our benchmark. They show a high diversity, not only from the scientific point of view (i.e.,site-intrinsic geodiversity), but also when we consider theirPotential for Use. Despite often disregarded in the international panorama, Italian loess sites require a great attention. Moreover, such sites areevolving passive geomorphosites, thus potentially vulnerable from natural and human causes: this must be considered in the framework of geoconservation and sustainable promotion of each site. Finally, we discuss the possibility of promoting Italian loess sites through different strategies (e.g. virtual tours, 3D models, and gamification based on landscape reconstruction) allowing to visit them by remote and favouring promotion. At the same time, this approach will also promote geoconservation, improving awareness in the general public on the relevance of such sites for Earth (natural and human-related) history.

High mountain environments and especially proglacial systems, which are areas defined by subtracting modern glacier outlines from Little Ice Age (LIA) limits, are among the most dynamic geomorphic contexts on Earth. They are extremely sensitive to ongoing climate change and its consequences are especially intense – yet relatively poorly investigated – at middle-low latitudes, as in the case of the circum-Mediterranean mountainous contexts. This area (excluding the Alps) encompasses recently deglaciated ground from the borders of the Mediterranean Sea and comprises more than hundred ice bodies dramatically receding since their LIA extension. Most of these glaciers are completely disappeared leaving extensive proglacial areas, which differs from those described in the Alps for the timing and types of ongoing processes. Here, we present and discuss the unique characteristics of such dynamic proglacial contexts, focusing on recently deglaciated high mountain areas of Southeast Turkey that are affected by fast geomorphological evolution tuned by their specific climatic and geological settings. We compare two areas differing for climatic, structural, and lithological settings: i) the Mount Ararat/Ağrı Dağı (5137 m a.s.l.), a stratovolcano, and ii) the Cilo mountain range (up to 4116 m a.s.l.), characterized by a limestone bedrock. Since the LIA, the two areas underwent different trajectories of evolution and different rates of geomorphic processes. High-resolution satellite data from Pleiades and SPOT 6 platforms permit to investigate the overprint of specific local factors (volcanism, tectonic, and topography) on climate-driven surface evolution explains the specific evolution of each proglacial area.

Proglacial areas, defined as the areas left free from glaciers since the Little Ice Age, are open-air laboratories to study the effects of climate change on high mountain environments. Their different abiotic features (i.e. geodiversity) depend mainly on the bedrock characteristics, the type of glaciers acting in the areas and the morphometry of their hydrographic basins, which influence the geomorphic dynamics (i.e., geomorphodiversity). From this, it could derive a different response of glacier forefields to deglaciation and particular evolutionary trends. Hydrological elements and dynamics are particularly variable (i.e. hydrogeodiversity), especially in terms of proglacial lakes diversification, having effects down-valley, even far from the strict proglacial area, and also in term of potential natural hazards. Moreover, geodiversity of proglacial areas may have implications on other types of “diversity”. After the glacier retreat, glacier forefields are, in fact, characterized by soils development and vegetation settlement. In particular, soils characterized by different ages and by different degree of development coexist over short distances (i.e. pedodiversity), functioning also as a support for living organisms. Biotic components gradually colonize such areas, from the pioneer to the late-successional species, bringing varied species along the proglacial plains (i.e. biodiversity). All these aspects can be discussed in the perspective of the abiotic ecosystem services (i.e. regulating, supporting, provisioning, and cultural) provided by glacier forefields. Regulating services are related to both atmospheric and terrestrial processes, including natural hazard regulation. Supporting services deal mainly with habitat provision and soils development. Provisioning services include both material (freshwater, building materials) and immaterial (i.e. tourism) resources. Finally, cultural services, that are the most numerous, take into account, among the others, the spiritual and historical meaning, the geohistorical importance for the Earth Sciences development, the educational and geotourism-related opportunities, and the landscape benefit effects. Considering all these aspects, and the intense dynamics proglacial areas are affected by, which will be illustrated through examples mainly from the European Alps, it emerges the importance of a careful monitoring and management of such areas, hopefully through an even more holistic approach.

In mountain environments, the high variability of soil forming factors (i.e., parent material, climate, relief, organism, time) is responsible for the presence of different soil types, which not only contribute to the pedodiversity but are also a component of the local cultural heritage.Up to now, scarce attention has been paid to the soil in the geoheritage/geoconservation scientific analyses.To promote soil as element concurring to mountain geoheritage definition, we propose a strategy to include pedological topics within a multidisciplinary trail planned in the Veglia-Devero Natural Park (Lepontine Alps). The geomorphological dynamicity and environmental change affecting during times the small mountain catchment of Buscagna hydrographic basin are illustrated with a specific address to soil characteristics. The physical and chemical properties, and pedological features of soils reflect the interaction among the other ecosystem components (i.e. geology, geomorphology and vegetation), underlining the role of soil as natural archive for reconstructing landscape evolution and for achieving a more complete assessment of Late Quaternary geomorphic events, especially surface processes.Geopedological researches carried out in the study area, allowed to detect 7 soil profiles as potential sites of pedological interest, located in safe and accessible places, along already existing hiking paths. The selected soil profiles not only mirror the main soil types that characterize the area but also represent evidence of past environmental conditions and geomorphic dynamics.The opportunities for hikers and mountaineers, to observe the exposed soils along the Buscagna valley, thanks to the presence of erosional scarps and subsidence areas, allow also to get more awareness of the need of geoheritage conservation strategies addressed to soil, especially in the mountain landscape where soil characteristics reflect the striking influence of its forming factors.

The Italian territory is characterized by frequent hydrogeological instability phenomena, among which landslides, responsible for a high number of damages, are able to leave impressive marks on the landscape and to rework the physical features of a territory. Nevertheless, landslide bodies may represent key sites for thematic itineraries, educational projects, and valorization especially in protected areas. Their management can consequently become an important issue in natural reserves’ management.Our study focuses on the territory of the "Monte Rufeno Nature Reserve" (Central Apennines, Italy), where iconic landslides are present. Here, the "Scialimata Grande di Torre Alfina" landslide, is listed in the regional Geosite database. After creating a landslide susceptibility map for the reserve territory - based on drainage density and relief energy - the analysis was focused on the Scialimata complex landslide, to define properly its scientific and educational value. The geomorphological characterization of the landslide - carried out both on the field (geomorphological survey and GPS monitoring through wooden pins) that through remote sensing techniques (UAV drone, photointerpretation) - helped the assessment of the landslide dynamism. Moreover, dendrogeomorphological and ecological characterizations were performed to understand the relations between the geomorphic dynamics and the vegetation response (i.e., ecological support role of the Geosite). The area affected by Scialimata landslide falls into the highest landslide susceptibility class. At the local scale, its recent dynamics - as resulted from the GPS field monitoring in the 2015-2018 time interval - shows a maximum downvalley displacement of 23 meters. The landslide dynamics could be driven by a rain pattern with alternated dry and extremely wet periods; moreover, leakages from the water pipeline in proximity of the landslide crowning area, may have decreased the clays cohesion. The possible influence of the landslide, on the Paglia River dynamics, downvalley, was also hypothesized. Disturbances on plants ascribable to the landsliding, as tilted trunks and exposed roots, show distribution and characters explainable not only by the complex rotational dynamism of the landslide, but also by the hypothesized piping effect in the crowning zone. The landslide is highly representative of the geomorphic dynamics affecting the natural Reserve (i.e., scientific value) and it could be classified as an active Geosite, featured by a high ecological support role (not only towards vegetation) that increases the scientific value of the site too. Since the site was also featured by a touristic trail, that underwent disruption due to landslide movement, these results could enable adequate management strategies considering educational value and safety issues.

International audience; Complex sequences of paleosols are often formed by the interaction between pedogenesis and geomorphological evolution. Their study, particularly in mountain areas, is useful to reconstruct past environmental conditions as well as climate shifts, and to gather information on the morphodynamical processes affecting the landscape through time.Since the combined role that all different factors can play in the soil formation and evolution through time and space influences the formation and evolution of those complex paleosol sequences, a multidisciplinary study was conducted at the NW slope of Mt. Cusna (Northern Apennines, Italy). This work aims to reconstruct and to evaluate how the interactions between the geomorphological context, the Holocene climate variations, and the modification of the vegetation cover and composition influence the soil development of this area.A combination of routine soil analyses (i.e., grain-size distributions, total organic carbon, total nitrogen, pH, and Fe/Al extractions), soil micromorphology and the Rock-Eval® pyrolysis allowed to characterize and to correlate the different soil units constituting a toposequence of six soil profiles.The presence of different pedological units that can be correlated along the slope underlines the occurrence of separate events of pedogenesis, spatio-temporally linked to recognizable stability phases at slope scale. These phases of biostasy, characterized by vegetation cover and soil development, alternate to phases of rhexistasy, characterized mainly by slope instability (i.e., aggradation/degradation).In detail, in the Mt. Cusna toposequence three different soil units, linked to three different stability phases, have been identified: the earliest stability phase, characterized by the presence of well-developed Luvisols, the subsequent stability phase typified by less expressed Luvisols, and the ongoing stability phase with Leptosols. This latter pedogenetic phase, in some cases, is superimposed to the previous one, so affecting the exhumed paleosols.In this light, the Mt. Cusna toposequence characterization allowed to enlighten the complexity of soil polygenesis in higher detail than the previous studies, not only reconstructing the past environmental conditions but also inferring the succession of phases of slope stability and phases characterized by erosion and deposition processes.

In the framework of geosite management, specific targeted symbols for geomorphological legends are still lacking. Concerning geosites of geomorphological interest, geomorphological mapping requires targeted symbols in relation to goals and applications, either concerning geomorphic hazards and risk detection or the enhancement of resources, in particular those related to cultural heritage and, hence, geoheritage. A new methodology for mapping geo(morpho)heritage on geomorphological maps is presented in this paper. Nine iconic examples from the Italian landscape, selected in different morphogenetic and morphoclimatic contexts, are proposed to test the methodology in relation to point, polyline and polygon features. Moreover, guidelines for mapping are suggested according to the importance of the site and to the complexity of processes characterizing each case study.

Mountain regions are characterized by a spatial geomorphic heterogeneity that confers on the environment a significant geomorphodiversity. A methodology based on a different scale/spatial/resolution approach is proposed to evaluate the relationship existing among geomorphodiversity, geomorphological processes. and sediment connectivity. Starting from the geomorphological mapping of the Veglia Devero Natural Park (Lepontine Alps), indexes of fragmentation (IFrm) and geomorphodiversity (IGmf) were computed. The results were used to select a meaningful sub-area (Buscagna stream catchment) for calculating the index of connectivity (IC). The relationships among these three indexes are discussed, using a semi-quantitative approach including descriptive statistics (i.e., box plot) and analysis of the different geomorphoconnectivity sectors, testifying to the role of geomorphic processes in regulating sediment fluxes and, consequently, controlling landscape units. IGmf turned out to be more conservative than IFrm and more management-oriented for protected areas, while IC was confirmed to be particularly suitable to characterize connectivity in small mountain catchments featuring different geomorphic processes and a complex topography. This study suggests that coupling the sediment connectivity with the geomorphology and geomorphodiversity of a given area represents a quite novel approach that could be usefully applied in the framework of protected areas to investigate also biodiversity patterns and consequently environmental evolution in space and time.

Mountain landscapes are characterised by a very variable environment under different points of view (topography, geology, meteorological conditions), and they are frequently affected by mass wasting processes. A debris flow that occurred along the Croso stream, located in the Italian Lepontine Alps in the Northern Ossola Valley, during summer 2019, was analysed from a geological/geomorphological and meteorological point of view. The debris flow was triggered by an intense precipitation event that heavily impacted a very restricted area over the course of three hours. A previous debris flow along the same stream occurred in Autumn 2000, but it was related to an intense and prolonged rainfall event. The slope was characterised in terms of sediment connectivity, and data were retrieved and elaborated from the Web-GIS (Web-Geographic Information System) database of the IFFI-Italian Landslide Inventory and historical archives of landslides. Both the events were analysed through the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model applying a very high horizontal grid spacing with the aim of catching the precipitation patterns and timings. The obtained results are compared with the observed precipitation at a selection of weather stations in the area. The simulation of WRF that measured the timing in total precipitation and in its minor steps could be considered reliable. Moreover, it reveals to be appropriate for detecting in advance the meteorological conditions potentially triggering mass-wasting processes affecting slopes featuring high connectivity conditions and lithotypes characterised by a high Landslide Susceptibility Index.

Denudation processes affecting mountain slopes may vary according to different factors (e.g., lithology and structural setting of bedrock, climate, relief features), which may be very diverse at the local scale. Gully complex systems, characterised by morphological features similar to those developing in other climate contexts (i.e., pseudo-badlands) are also becoming common at higher altitudes and latitudes. The selected study cases of Gran Gorgia (Susa Valley) and Saint Nicolas (Aosta Valley), in the Western Italian Alps, are sites of geomorphological interest as they are specifically relevant for their scientific features. The aims of this work are (i) reconstructing the morphometric evolution of gully systems and vegetation colonisation time by means of multitemporal spatial analysis on surface morphological changes under water erosion; (ii) reconstructing in detail, through dendrogeomorphological analysis, the progressive spatial surface denudation and changes in erosion rates, by analysing trees and exposed roots and using different indicators (i.e., compression wood, traumatic resin ducts); (iii) obtaining data on successive aggradation/degradation episodes along slopes surrounding such hotspots through geopedological investigations; and (iv) identifying which control factors exert a predominant role on denudation patterns in such contexts. Multidisciplinary analyses regarding the study sites allowed for detailing of erosional history of the studied slopes detecting the prevailing drivers of their evolution. According to the results and considering the common climate and bedrock conditions, the structural background seems to have more influence on slope evolution at the Saint Nicolas site, while superficial geomorphic processes seem to be more relevant at the Gran Gorgia site. Because the sites have already been recognised as part of geoheritage by local authorities, the data obtained in the present research on their genesis, evolution, and local drivers affecting the rates of denudation (i.e., scientific relevance of the site) suggests that description of the sites for dissemination purposes should include links to the entire slope history.

The researches carried out by the AIGeo (Italian Association of Physical Geography and Geomorphology) members, also in collaboration with other researchers, cover various important topics of the Environmental and Earth Sciences. Geomorphology is central, also in the framework of dissemination strategies that are implemented and elaborated. A particular focus is, in fact, addressed to the development of educational strategies and applications focusing on landscape evolution through space and time having as target both students and teachers. The proposed strategies include fieldworks, multimedia activities and multidisciplinary approaches addressed mainly to secondary schools. In the Italian framework, the Ministerial National Guidelines provide indications about teaching these topics in the secondary schools. The guidelines indicate specifically, for the secondary schools of 2nd level, the topics and novelties concerning Physical Geography and Geomorphology. Among the general goals referred to the secondary school of 1st level, the landscape observation and the related natural phenomena are approached by the Geography teachers and by the Science teachers. Herein, we present an overview on the AIGeo activities regarding education in Physical Geography and Geomorphology. Some examples of the most recent researches planned and tested for the secondary school (1st and 2nd level) will be outlined. Moreover, the initiatives addressed specifically to present and future teachers will be illustrated too.

Mountains regions are usually characterized, according to their geological and structural setting, by an articulated relief, where gravity and water-driven processes occur with an increasing intensity following glaciers retreat. Denudation processes affecting mountain slopes may vary according to local conditions controlled by different factors (e.g., lithology and structural setting of bedrock, climate, relief features).The succession of slope stability and instability phases can be registered in the soil record as paleosols or buried surfaces. Therefore, an exhaustive investigation of soils and paleosols could provide information to infer the spatial-temporal variation of the denudation/deposition processes.The main aim of this study is the reconstruction of the dynamic interplay between erosion and sedimentation that have been characterizing the landscape evolution of the Buscagna Stream hydrographic basin (Veglia-Devero Natural Park, Central-Western Italian Alps) during the Late Holocene. The basin is characterized by an evident asymmetry between the valley slopes in terms of lithology (calcschists on the southeastern slope versus ortogneiss, micaschists and spots of ultramafic rocks on the northwestern slope), and by a structural control on the relief. This differentiation is also responsible for the great landforms variability and the geomorphic dynamics dissimilarities between the slopes. In order to reconstruct the different dynamics affecting the slopes, 11 soil profiles were investigated by means of field and laboratory (on both mineral and organic constituents) characterizations; the soil profiles were selected in different morphological contexts, along two downslope transects on the two sides of the valley.The results show that the investigated soil profiles are characterized by different soil units, identifiable by the presence of grain size discontinuities and/or stone lines or buried organic horizons. The presence of different pedological units underlines the occurrence of separate events of pedogenesis alternated to phases characterized by slope instability and intensification of denudation and related degradation/aggradation processes. Moreover, the soils recorded in a different way the instability phases occurred in the two opposite flanks of the hydrographic basins, underlining changes in predominant erosion processes, which are also related to the varying bedrock both in term of lithology and structural settings.In particular, on the southeastern slope characterized by a calcschists parent material and by less steep slopes i) the gravity erosion processes are less intense; ii) the presence of vegetation cover and a developed soil promote the slope stability. Whereas, on the northwestern slope characterized by gneiss and micaschists and locally by ultramafic rocks and high relief energy i) the soils have recorded many instability phases in term of sequences of buried surfaces; ii) the presence of coarse slope deposits only partially colonized by vegetation predispose to slope instability. The characterization of soil mineral component underlines the presence of different material sources, linked to action of a variety of agents (e.g., gravity, water, snow, wind), which have contributed to landscape evolution in term of sediment erosion, transport and deposition.Finally, this research highlights the role of soil as useful archive for retracing the geomorphological processes responsible for high altitude areas landscape evolution.

Mountain areas are characterized by geomorphic processes, especially mass wasting and snow avalanches, which may impact the landscape affecting also the biological component, trees included. If sites colonized by trees are characterized by geomorphic features with a high Global and Scientific Value, including Representativeness of geomorphological processes, Educational Exemplarity, and Integrity, they can be considered geomorphosites. In the framework of assessment of the Scientific Value of geomorphosites, Ecological Support Role is of great importance. Hence, tree rings derived information can be used as indicators to refine the Scientific Value of the sites and also to propose multidisciplinary approaches to understand landscape dynamics. In fact, trees colonizing sites of geomorphological interest are used for detecting past and present events and tree rings may be considered ecological indicators under different points of view. Arboreal vegetation can register growth disturbances in terms of morphological features, at macro- (particular morphologies of trunks) and micro-scale (annual growth rings, stress indicators like compression wood, traumatic resin ducts), becoming a powerful indicator of the geomorphic activity affecting the landscape. In some cases, combined with other techniques like climate data analysis, they may allow refining the often lacunose historical records of geomorphic events impacting different territories. The integrated analysis carried out in the Loana Valley (Sesia Val Grande UNESCO Geopark, Western Italian Alps), considering a selection of geomorphosites affected by mass wasting processes and snow avalanches and located along a touristic trail, allowed to detect which meteorological thresholds favour hydrogeological instability (i.e. overcome of Mean Annual Rainfall of 6–10%). Tree rings data coming from the investigated sites provided information on the recurrence of geomorphic activity, allowing filling gaps within the historical archives, by individuating years during which hydrogeological or snow-related events probably occurred and that were missed (i.e. 1986, 1989, 2001, 2007), and adding details on sites for which temporal constraints had not been found before (i.e. Pizzo Stagno Complex System). Finally, investigated sites demonstrated to differently record the history of instability affecting the area and this difference is mirrored in the sites values that are adopted in the framework of geoheritage analysis (Scientific Value, Ecological Support Role and Educational Exemplarity). The proposed multidisciplinary approach, including geomorphology, dendrogeomorphology and climatology, represents, hence, a useful tool in geoheritage valorisation and management strategies.

Fieldwork has a great importance in fixing knowledge and acquiring skills and competences in Earth Sciences education; it also represents a starting point for the discovery of geodiversity and geoheritage. Educational activities in urban and suburban areas offer great opportunities and an unique training ground to recognize the role of different processes and landforms after the human reworking.Moreover, they favour interdisciplinary approaches, which evidence the relationship among geological and geomorphological processes, human activities and culture. Here two different experiences in the Milan (Italy) urban and suburban areas are proposed, to highlight the importance of open-air laboratory for students and future teachers: i) an itinerary in the inner city to classify lithologies used for buildings and street floors in order to recognize not only geological elements butalso the role of geology within human history and life, the materials provenance areas in the framework of Alps geology and water ways used to move them, and ii) a hydrological itinerary, from Milan city to the Chiaravalle Abbey and the nearby village, to approach present and past characteristics of fluvial geomorphology and its link with surface- and ground-waters.

Rock cliffs equipped for climbing represent a new tool in education. Results of an interdisciplinary educational project, Gekologia, focusing on Earth Sciences and Physical Education, are here presented. Gekologia was tested by 2 classes from a secondary school (1st level, 3rd year; Pavia, Lombardy). Fieldtrip and geoclimbing activity were carried out at the Uriezzo Glacial Garden and Premia- Balmafredda cliff (Piemonte). They focused on cliff features, rock glacial modelling and motor action in climbing. The main aim was to help students in acquiring the ability to recognize the local most important lithotypes, the relationship between geology and climbing progression and the concept of landscape modelling, in order to get competences exportable in different environments. Teaching and evaluation were based on traditional strategies and student drawings realized observing climbers' progression on site and through multimedia material. First results confirm the importance of interdisciplinary approaches including fieldwork and new technologies.

Geomorphic processes driven by water are particularly active in mountain environments, especially under the current climate conditions. Erosion and dissolution processes shape meaningful landforms, in different kinds of deposits and rocks, and in some cases they are classified as geomorphosites. Such landforms, especially earth pyramids and rock pillars, are usually characterized by a high scientific value (e.g., representativeness, ecologic support role) and by additional values (e.g., cultural and aesthetic value) contributing to the local geoheritage. Mountain geomorphosites are growing in importance within scientific community and their morphological evolution can affect the global value of the site itself (e.g., integrity). In this paper, after a first review on the terminology used for classifying landforms modelled by water runoff and on their meaning within the mountain environment, the results of a detailed research performed at two sample sites, included in the Swiss National Inventory of Geosites, are presented. The two study sites are representative respectively of: i) water runoff on glacial deposits shaping earth pyramids (Pyramides d'Euseigne); ii) water dissolution on gypsum rocks, modelling articulate karst landscapes (Pyramides de gypse du Col de la Croix). For each site, landforms evolution was investigated and denudation rates were estimated by means of different methods: iconographic material analysis, quantitative geomorphology and dendrogeomorphology on exposed roots. Despite the long-term, average rates obtained by means of roots exposure for both water runoff on glacial deposits (e.g., 5.8 mm/y) and dissolution on gypsum rocks (5.6 mm/y) are comparable. Moreover, a strict relation between the activity degree of processes, the integrity of the site and the assignment of geomorphosites to a specific category (i.e., active, passive or evolving passive) emerged from the results.

Geomorphological mapping plays a key role in landscape representation: it is the starting point for many applications and for the realization of thematic maps, such as hazard and risk maps, geoheritage and geotourism maps. Traditional geomorphological maps are useful for scientific purposes but they need to be simplified for different aims as management and education. In tourism valorization, mapping of geomorphological resources (i.e., geosites, and geomorphosites), and of geomorphic evidences of past hazardous geomorphological events, is important for increasing knowledge about landscape evolution and active processes, potentially involving geomorphosites and hiking trails. Active geomorphosites, as those widespread in mountain regions, testify the high dynamicity of geomorphic processes and their link with climatic conditions. In the present paper, we propose a method to produce and to update cartographic supports (Geomorphological Boxes) realized starting from a traditional geomorphological survey and mapping. The Geomorphological Boxes are geomorphological representation of single, composed or complex landforms drawn on satellite images, using the official Italian geomorphological legend (ISPRA symbols). Such cartographic representation is also addressed to the analysis (identification, evaluation and selection) of Potential Geomorphosites and Geotrails. The method has been tested in the upper portion of the Loana Valley (Western Italian Alps), located within the borders of the Sesia Val Grande Geopark, recognized by UNESCO in 2013. The area has a good potential for geotourism and for educational purposes. We identified 15 Potential Geomorphosites located along 2 Geotrails; they were ranked according to specific attributes also in relation with a Reference Geomorphosite located in the Loana hydrographic basin and inserted in official national and regional databases of geosites (ISPRA; Regione Piemonte). Finally, the ranking of Potential Geomorphosites allowed to select the most valuable ones for valorization or geoconservation purposes. In this framework, examples of Geomorphological Boxes are proposed as supports to geo-risk education practices.

In the 20th anniversary year of the European Geopark Network, and 5 years on from the receipt of the UNESCO label for the geoparks, this research focuses on geotourism contents and solutions within one of the most recently designated geoparks, admitted for membership in 2013: the Sesia Val Grande UNESCO Global Geopark (Western Italian Alps). The main aim of this paper is to corroborate the use of fieldtrips and virtual tours as resources for geotourism. The analysis is developed according to: i) geodiversity and geoheritage of the geopark territory, ii) different approaches for planning fieldtrip and virtual tours. The lists of 18 geotrails, 68 geosites and 13 off-site geoheritage elements (e.g., museums, geolabs) are provided. Then, seven trails were selected as a mirror of the geodiversity and as container of on-site and off-site geoheritage within the geopark. They were described to highlight the different approaches that were implemented for their valorization. Most of the geotrails are equipped with panels, and supported by the presence of thematic laboratories or sections in museums. A multidisciplinary approach (e.g., history, ecology) is applied to some geotrails, and a few of them are translated into virtual tours. The variety of geosciences contents of the geopark territory is hence viewed as richness, in term of high geodiversity, but also in term of diversification for its valorization.

The measurement of turbulent fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer is usually performed using fast anemometers and the Eddy Covariance technique. This method has been applied here and investigated in a complex mountainous terrain. A field campaign has recently been conducted at Alpe Veglia (the Central-Western Italian Alps, 1746 m a.s.l.) where both standard and micrometeorological data were collected. The measured values obtained from an ultrasonic anemometer were analysed using a filtering procedure and three different coordinate rotation procedures: Double (DR), Triple Rotation (TR) and Planar Fit (PF) on moving temporal windows of 30 and 60 min. A quality assessment was performed on the sensible heat and momentum fluxes and the results show that the measured turbulent fluxes at Alpe Veglia were of a medium-high quality level and rarely passed the stationary flow test. A comparison of the three coordinate procedures, using quality assessment and sensible heat flux standard deviations, revealed that DR and TR were comparable, with significant differences, mainly under low-wind conditions. The PF method failed to satisfy the physical requirement for the multiple planarity of the flow, due to the complexity of the mountainous terrain.

The aim of this paper is to collect and present some educational applications dedicated to the observation and comprehension of the relief and physical landscape evolution at different temporal and spatial scales. The activities were based on the direct contact with the geological-geomorphological contexts. The presented proposals, some of which have been already tested on students of the secondary school of first level, concern: i) the realization of open-air laboratory activities in the alpine environment; in particular simplified dendrochronological procedures were used on scanned wood samples of trees located on deposits and landforms from different origin, to achieve a better comprehension of the modelling process and evolution during time of the physical landscape; ii) the analysis of the fluvial landforms and deposits in educational valued sites to highlight concepts of structural control on fluvial landscape and paleogeography; iii) the observation of sport-climbing walls and of the dependence of progression on the geological and geomorphological structures in order to approach lithotypes and glacial erosion landforms. The link with the concept of geomorphological hazard represented finally an occasion for education to risk. The educational activities herein illustrated represent pilot proposals where fieldwork demonstrated to be essential to fix geological and geomorphological concepts.

The soil formation, its development, and its preservation in high mountain environments are largely determined by topography and geomorphological dynamic. Therefore, soil development in alpine areas is often non-linear over time, and characterized by phases of progressive and regressive evolution. The interaction among soil-forming factors is preserved in soils as physical/chemical properties and pedological features. In particular, the action of surface geomorphological processes can be observed as stone lines or sequences of buried surfaces. In this light, exhaustive investigation of soils and paleosols could provide enough information to reconstruct past environmental conditions and spatio-temporal changes in denudation/deposition processes. The main aim of this study is to assess the role of soil as a useful archive for retracing the geomorphological processes that are responsible for the landscape evolution during the Late Holocene in a typical alpine catchment such as the Buscagna stream hydrographic basin (Veglia-Devero Natural Park, Lepontine Alps). The asymmetry in valley slopes, due to lithology and structural control, generates a great variety of geomorphic processes and landforms. Therefore, seven soil profiles were selected along the two slopes, in different morphological contexts, to reveal the influence of the different active geomorphic processes in soil development. Soils were investigated by means of field and laboratory analyses, and geomorphological maps of the area surrounding the profiles were made. On the southeastern slope, characterized by calcschist substratum, the soil profiles are composed of two superimposed pedological units, separated by an instability hiatus. On the northwestern slope, characterized by gneiss and ultramafic rocks, and on the valley bottom, the soils record instability phases in different ways, fitting well with the geomorphological context. In this mountain environment, the close relationship between soil development and geomorphic processes allows us to confirm the role of soil as a useful archive to potentially reconstruct the past geomorphological conditions.

The cultural value of geomorphological heritage (i.e., geomorphosites) is universally recognised and at the same time the interest on its mutability, as a consequence of both natural-climate and human pressure, is growing. In some cases a sudden increase in the velocity of processes can cause irreversible modifications threatening the survival of sites as well as their scientific value in terms of integrity. The focus of this paper is put on two types of geomorphosites (active geomorphosites and evolving passive geomorphosites), in which it is possible to observe and quantify the geomorphological processes varying mainly as a response to climate change. The study cases are runoff-derived landforms on unconsolidated deposits in two morphoclimatic contexts: ‘calanchi’ on marine originated clays in the Italian Apennines in Mediterranean climatic context (Crete d’Arbia and Radicofani, Tuscany) and earth pyramids formed in glacial deposits in continental Alpine environment (Pyramides d’Euseigne, Canton Valais, Switzerland). In both sites, human activities have strongly contributed to landscape evolution. To investigate erosion rates, dendrogeomorphological analysis (i.e. stress indicators and root exposure analysis) were combined with traditional quantitative geomorphological techniques. Analysis of the roots exposure, well correlated with the climatic data (denudation rates are higher during wet period), show that denudation rates are lower at Pyramides d’Euseigne due to the different texture of the deposits. Unfortunately, at the moment, a comparison between the two sites based on geomorphological monitoring data is not possible due to the different time interval of analysis, and only conclusions on denudation rates coming from roots exposure are allowed. Both geomorphosites have a high scientific value (representativeness and educational exemplarity) and are characterised by dynamicity. Providing data for modelling the sites evolution and possible decrease of their scientific value, caused by proceeding of the process itself, may be particularly significant.

Mountain landscapes are generated by the interplay of endogenous and exogenous processes, whose reciprocal importance changes over times. The Italian relief reflects a high geomorphodiversity and an overview on iconic mountain landscapes, representative of the lithological-structural diversity of the Italian relief, is presented. The study cases, located along Alps and Apennines and in the Sardinia island, are exemplary for the comprehension of the role of the substratum in shaping mountain landscapes and of the deriving risk scenario. Moreover, mountain landscapes are characterized by a high potential for use in terms of: i) ideal open-air natural laboratories for multidisciplinary educational purposes including geological-geomorphological, historical and ecological topics; ii) possibility of specific outdoor activities that take advantage of outdoor sports (e.g., climbing, canyoning, speleology). These feasible and versatile opportunities favour the enhancement of such environments under different perspectives as well as the involvement of local communities and the socio-economic return deriving from mountain geoheritage management.

The researches carried out by the AIGeo (Italian Association of Physical Geography and Geomorphology) members, also in collaboration with other researchers, cover various important topics of the Environmental and Earth Sciences and focus on scientific goals and on the development of educational strategies and applications as well. Topics and novelties concerning Physical Geography and Geomorphology fit well with the indications included in the Ministerial National Guidelines for the secondary schools of 2nd level and in the general goals referred to the secondary school of 1st level, where the landscape is discussed by the Geography teachers and natural phenomena by the Science teachers.In this paper, we present an overview about education in Physical Geography and Geomorphology and some examples of the most recent researches planned and tested for the secondary school (1st and 2nd level) and for present and future teachers.

Glacier history can be reconstructed thanks to geomorphological documentation of previous advances, dating of glacial deposits, and investigation of buried soils and included organic material, which may be linked to vegetation dynamics. A buried log was retrieved at 2,385 m a.s.l. on the northeast-facing slope of the upper Forni Valley (Italian Alps), where the homonymous valley glacier is located. The glacier forefield is currently facing an early successional forest expansion after the ongoing tongue retreat, mainly dominated by young Picea abies Karst. and Larix decidua Mill. specimens. From dendrochronological and radiocarbon analyses on the retrieved log, coupled with sedimentological and geopedological data, the past environmental and glacier conditions were reconstructed. The log belongs to the Stone pine species (Pinus cembra L.), it has 283 tree rings and became buried in the deposit in the Subboreal, after 4,201–4,032 cal. year BP, age of the outermost tree ring. The retrieved log reveals that during the Subboreal in the Forni Valley, likely much older specimens of Stone pine were present on the slopes, in strong contrast to present-day conditions. The log’s tree-ring growth rates were similar to those presented during the Little Ice Age peak by Stone pine trees of comparable age growing nowadays at the treeline.

A multitemporal series of aerial photos and cross-section topographic surveys have been used to analyze reach-scale channel evolution along a segment (length of about 22 km) of the lower Trebbia River (Northern Italy) with the aims to investigate the relations between channel width vs. bed-level adjustments and to identify spatio-temporal patterns of stages of channel evolution. Dendrochronology was used to determine the age of tree establishment of riparian and island forests during channel evolution. We identified a first phase of major adjustments (1954–1992) following a series of disturbances, dominated by channel narrowing and bed incision. During the final stage of narrowing, woody vegetation establishment contributed to stabilize new floodplain or island surfaces. A period of partial morphological recovery occurred from 1992 to 2010, dominated by an inversion of trend of channel width. During the phase of partial recovery, a stage of widening combined with a continuation of bed incision was identified, and a last stage characterized by widening and initial aggradation was observed on the central portion of the study reaches. Suitability and differences of existing channel evolution models (CEMs) derived in other geographical contexts were discussed, and a specific conceptual model comprising four stages of channel evolution was developed for the lower Trebbia River.

Numerous sites of geological and geomorphological interest (i.e., geosites or geomorphosites) have been recently individuated around the Alps, testifying to the great geodiversity that characterises this mountain range. Some rock cliffs that have been locally equipped as sport climbing sites may also be considered as sites of geological and geomorphological interest: the combination of features such as educational exemplarity and geohistorical importanceincrease the scientific value of these sites. Progression along climbing routes is intimately connected with the geological and geomorphological features of the cliff; thus, it may be possible to interest typical climbers in the area of the Earth Sciences.A research study was conducted at the Montestrutto climbing wall (Western Alps, Italy), which is located in the Eclogitic Micaschist Complex of the Austroalpine Domain, with the following objectives: i) to reconstruct the deformation stages at local scales along the sport climbing wall and in the surroundings; ii) to analysehow geological elements are related to the physical elements needed for vertical progression to strengthen the link among geology, morphology and the grade of the routes, and finally iii) to use previous results to evaluate the potential of Montestrutto as a geosite. The detailed study consisted of the quantitative analysis of five routes of varying degrees of difficulty, which produced an interesting relationship among the level of difficulty of the routes and the geological and geomorphological features of the sport climbing wall. The Montestrutto cliff is considered to be a valuable geosite because of the scientific importance (e.g., representativeness, educational exemplarity and geohistorical importance) associated with its high cultural and socio-economic value and high potential for use. Sport climbing in sites such as Montestrutto, which are both scientifically significant and accessible, also in terms of the level of climbing difficulty, could be considered as a possible vehicle for stimulating public interest in the Earth Sciences.

Ecological attributes of geomorphosites play a significant role as one of the characteristic components of their scientific value, hence influencing their global value. Ecological attributes can, however, act independently and inform other attributes which characterise scientific and additional values and the sites potential for use. Within the framework of active geomorphosites, environmental changes and recent dynamics can be reconstructed through tree-ring analysis. Glacial geomorphosites are one of the most significant examples of this biotic–abiotic relationship. Among glacial geomorphosites, debris-covered glaciers represent key sites at which to evaluate an ecological attribute. The Miage Glacier, the most representative Italian debris-covered glacier, is an important site for multidisciplinary scientific research, enhancing its global value as a complex geomorphosite. The Miage Glacier has been selected as a study site, firstly to characterise the evolution of scientific research across the last 250 years and then to quantify the ecological support role (ESR) and its influence on the other attributes. The ESR’s importance in assessing global geomorphosite values was estimated by studying its variation and the variation of the related attributes as a consequence of an increase in scientific knowledge over time. The ESR variation displays a positive effect on scientific value, in particular, and generates more differentiation between defined sites and visitor trails, thus influencing site selection.

In the region between Valtellina and Lake Como in the Central Italian Alps, one can visit, in a relatively small area, some of the best examples of mountain geomorphological landscapes of Italy. Eight specific sites—showing peculiar glacial, periglacial, structural, gravity-induced and erosional landforms—have been selected to illustrate how different landscapes may originate from geomorphological modelling of different lithotypes in different morphogenetic systems. These eight sites are exemplary cases in which significant evidence of past and current climatic and structural conditions characterising this region is exhibited.

Glacial environments are considered geomorphosites because they exhibit all of the features that characterise sites of geomorphological interest. The Miage Glacier, in particular, is the most important debris-covered glacier of the Italian Alps, and it has been extensively studied since the 18th century because of its scientific features. In this area, the geomorphological and geological attributes are evaluated at 11 sites that have been individuated along the three main touristic trails, which allow an exploration of the surroundings of the glacial tongue and its two main lobes. Using a methodology previously tested in a fluvial environment, single sites and trails are quantitatively assessed to determine the most suitable trail for educational purposes. Hazards that could potentially affect the trails are considered in terms of both risk education and final selection of the most suitable trails for the various possible user groups. The richness of scientific data in this area should increase its importance as a geomorphosite by increasing the educational value of the Miage Glacier and the Veny Valley.

The Tyrrhenian side of the Central Apennines is located in a lively geological context, in which uplift/denudation dynamics played a key role in landscape evolution. Intense water erosion and gravitational processes led to the development of spectacular badlands on the widespread clayey hillslopes. The Crete d'Arbia badlands (as part of the Crete Senesi of Southern Tuscany) represent one of the most beautiful examples of these landforms developed on Pliocene clays. On the other hand, these rapidly evolving landforms endanger the artistic heritage of the area, as with the Monte Oliveto Maggiore Abbey that was constructed on the top of a badland hillslope and confers additional value to the landscape. In the perspective of monitoring and reconstructing some significant phases of the relief evolution of this area an integrated approach has been used, which is based on dendrogeomorphology and geomorphological monitoring techniques. In particular, the correspondence between the data from dendrogeomorphological indicators and the measured denudation rates on badland hillslopes was tested. The sampling for dendrogeomorphological analysis has been performed in two stages on 45 trees of the Pinus pinea L. species, on hillslopes affected by soil creep and shallow landslides, in order to identify annual ring growth anomalies, compression wood and roots exposure. Trees' local behaviour is not homogeneous but some common trends have been detected on the basis of the anomaly index and compression wood. Since 1993 several monitoring stations at badland denudation “hot spots” have been equipped with erosion pins; quantitative data from monitoring stations, compared to pluviometric series, indicated critical phases of denudation that were supported by dendrochronological data. The integrated approach between dendrogeomorphology and geomorphological monitoring techniques allowed calibration of both tools in order to extend the analysis in the period preceding the field measurements. This kind of approach, capable of implementation in many contexts, could be particularly helpful in order to forecast the relief evolutionary trend.

Le changement climatique induit actuellement de nombreuses modifications à l’environnement alpin : les glaciers classés comme géomorphosites sont affectés par un important retrait et de nouvelles aires sont progressivement disponibles pour être étudiées et valorisées. Un examen des formes de relief liées à l’érosion et aux dépôts glaciaires a été effectué pour documenter les conséquences du réchauffement climatique sur la végétation ; la colonisation des surfaces récemment déglacées est désormais plus rapide. Les recherches sur l’évolution des géomorphosites glaciaires sont importantes pour la connaissance scientifique et pour l’élaboration de « modèles d’évolution ». Utilisant les arbres qui poussent sur la surface des glaciers recouverts de débris rocheux, des investigations menées sur l’évolution « naturelle » des géomorphosites glaciaires sont présentées, permettant d’analyser les dynamiques passée et présente des zones proglaciaires. En outre, en étudiant les arbres qui poussent dans les zones proglaciaires des glaciers « blancs », il est possible d’appréhender les effets du changement climatiques sur la croissance des arbres qui colonisent ces aires. Ainsi, les nouveaux espaces qui apparaissent suite au retrait glaciaire peuvent être insérés dans les géomorphosites glaciaires, et utilisés pour affiner leur évaluation. Cet article montre, au final, l’intérêt de la dendrochronologie pour appréhender l’évolution des géomorphosites glaciaires face aux changements climatiques. Cette thématique est discutée sur la base des résultats obtenus à partir de deux sites d’étude : le glacier du Miage (Alpes occidentales) et le glacier des Forni (Alpes centrales). Global warming is inducing huge changes in Alpine environment: glaciers defined as glacial geomorphosites are affected by severe shrinkage and new territories are progressively becoming suitable for study and evaluation. Landforms related to glacial erosion and deposition are visible at different scales and the consequences of climate change on vegetation (e.g., faster colonisation of new areas) are also evident. Research on the evolution of glacier geomorphosites is significant in order to define their scientific attribute and characteristics as “model of evolution”. This paper presents a proposal to investigate the “natural” evolution of glacier geomorphosites using tree vegetation. The basic concept is that information can be gathered about past and present dynamics by analysing tree-growth on debris-covered glaciers and on their proglacial areas. Moreover, by investigating trees which colonise the glacial forefield of debris-free glaciers, the effects of climate change on tree colonisation can be analysed. New territories deriving from glacial shrinkage are revealed and may be integrated to the glacial geomorphosite defined. The use of dendrochronology for evaluating the evolution of glacial geomorphosites is proposed and discussed on the basis of past studies and of new data collected at two sample sites: the Miage Glacier (western Italian Alps) and the Forni Glacier (central Italian Alps)

In recent years, more and more attention has been focused on geological and geomorphological heritage. This has led to several investigations within the framework of conservation projects, both at administrative and scientific levels, involving national and international research groups whose purposes are the promotion of Earth Sciences knowledge and the conservation of geological heritage. This paper presents an overview of research and conservation projects in Italy, focusing mainly on geomorphological heritage. Members of the AIGeo Working Group on “Geomorphosites and cultural landscape” analysed the historical development of these research projects in order to identify possible innovation strategies to improve the awareness and knowledge of geodiversity and geoheritage of a wider public.

The promotion of geological and geomorphological heritage is growing in importance for educational initiatives. The constantly increasing interest towards changing landforms due to changing climate conditions asks not only for improving the values of the cultural proposals but also for précising the subject of the discussion. Cultural trails and natural resources valorisation are more and more frequently based on the concept of geomorphosite, which is strictly linked to landform typology definitions. In sensitive areas, changing geomorphosites are considered of great interest as a typical response to changes in climate. In this paper, on the basis of recent research, we discuss the definitions of landforms and geomorphosites activity in relation to surface processes dynamics. In addition, we discuss the implications of geomorphological surface processes for geomorphosite evolution and degradation and their consequent impact on related valorisation activities. We indicate how both active and passive landforms, and therefore geomorphosites, are of great interest for scientific, educational and tourism purposes.

An important, 2.4 km-thick Triassic succession is exposed at Nakhlak (central Iran). This succession was deformed during the Cimmerian orogeny and truncated by an angular unconformity with undeformed Upper Cretaceous sediments. This integrated stratigraphic study of the Triassic included bed-by-bed sampling for ammonoids, conodonts and bivalves, as well as limestone and sandstone petrographic analyses. The Nakhlak Group succession consists of three formations: Alam (Olenekian–Anisian), Bāqoroq (?Upper Anisian–Ladinian) and Ashin (Upper Ladinian). The Alam Formation records several shifts from carbonate to siliciclastic deposition, the Bāqoroq Formation consists of continental conglomerates and the Ashin Formation documents the transition to deep-sea turbiditic sedimentation. Petrographic composition has been studied for sandstones and conglomerates. Provenance analysis for Alam and most of the Ashin samples suggests a volcanic arc setting, whereas the samples from the Bāqoroq Formation are related to exhumation of a metamorphic basement. The provenance data, together with the great thickness, the sudden change of facies, the abundance of volcaniclastic supply, the relatively common occurrence of tuffitic layers and the orogenic calc-alkaline affinity of the volcanism, point to sedimentation along an active margin in a forearc setting. A comparison between the Triassic of Nakhlak and the Triassic succession exposed in the erosional window of Aghdarband (Koppeh Dag, NE Iran) indicates that both were deposited along active margins. However, they do not show the same type of evolution. Nakhlak and Aghdarband have quite different ammonoid faunal affinities during the Early Triassic, but similar faunal composition from the Bithynian to Late Ladinian. These results argue against the location of Nakhlak close to Aghdarband. Central Iran is geologically a very complex area, characterized by a tremendous variety of rock types ranging from Precambrian to Miocene sedimentary rocks, Palaeozoic–Cenozoic ultramafic–acid igneous rocks and Palaeozoic–Mesozoic metamorphic rocks. Such an astonishing geological diversity is related to a very long history that started with the assembly of Gondwana in early Palaeozoic times and continued to the present-day collision of the Arabian Plate with Eurasia. The unravelling of this long and complex history is challenging. The understanding of the Cimmerian system (Sengor 1984) is especially difficult as the Carboniferous–Jurassic rocks were often deformed, eroded, covered and/or metamorphosed during more recent collisional events, and their boundaries were sometimes reactivated by more recent faults and thrusts. Despite many published contributions to the geology of Central Iran, no shared interpretation has emerged at the microplate and local scales. For instance, there is no consensus on the proposal by Davoudzadeh et al. (1981) and Soffel et al. (1996) that the present-day Central Iran microplate has rotated by 1358 counterclockwise since the Triassic. This model has usually been accepted (Davoudzadeh & Weber-Diefenbach 1987; Ruttner 1993; Alavi et al. 1997; Seyed-Emami 2003), but a From: BRUNET, M.-F., WILMSEN, M. & GRANATH, J. W. (eds) South Caspian to Central Iran Basins. The Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 312, 287–321. DOI: 10.1144/SP312.14 0305-8719/09/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2009. test carried out by Wendt et al. (2005) on the basis of the palaeogeographical distribution of Palaeozoic facies actually failed to confirm the model. At the local scale there are often different interpretations of the stratigraphic v. tectonic relationships of several sedimentary and metasedimentary units. For instance, in the key areas of Nakhlak and Anarak, very different pictures were provided not only for the complexly metamorphic Anarak Range (e.g. Sharkovski et al. 1984; Bagheri 2007; Bagheri & Stampfli 2008), but also for the nearby unmetamorphosed Nakhlak Range (e.g. Sharkovski et al. 1984; Alavi et al. 1997). In order to clarify the general setting of Central Iran and its related Cimmerian history we selected the Nakhlak–Anarak area, which has been known since the 1970s (Davoudzadeh & Seyed-Emami 1972) for the contrast of its peculiar 2.4 km-thick mixed siliciclastic, volcaniclastic and carbonatic succession with the surrounding Triassic successions (i.e. Shotori Range, Tabas: Stocklin et al. 1965; see Seyed-Emami 2003 for a comprehensive summary). Based on lithological similarity, several authors suggested a correlation between the Nakhlak Triassic and an almost coeval succession exposed at Aghdarband (Koppeh Dag, NE Iran). Moreover, this correlation was used to support the 1358 counterclockwise rotation of Central Iran since the Triassic (Davoudzadeh et al. 1981). Despite its great significance it is worth noting that the geology and stratigraphy of the Nakhlak–Anarak area are not known in detail, as demonstrated by the rather different descriptions available in the literature (Davoudzadeh & Seyed Emami 1972; Sharkovski et al. 1984; Alavi et al. 1997; Vaziri 2001). The area was visited by a team of stratigraphers, structural geologists, palaeontologists and palaeomagnetists in 2003 and 2004. Most of the stratigraphic data are presented here, while the geological, structural and the palaeomagnetic analyses are described in separate contributions (Muttoni et al. 2009; Zanchi et al. 2009). The geology of the Nakhlak area: open