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Intra-articular ankle fracture (IAF) often leads to post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA), resulting in significant long-term morbidity. While previous research has focused on the inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases within the synovial fluid fracture hematoma (SFFH), the immune cell populations within SFFH that contribute to PTOA development remain underexplored. This study aimed to characterize the immune cell populations in SFFH to better understand their role in the inflammatory response and potential for inducing lasting cartilage damage. Twenty-four patients with IAF underwent surgical ankle aspiration to collect SFFH, which was analyzed using polychromatic flow cytometry. The analysis revealed that 72.8% of the CD45+ cells were lymphocytes, predominantly CD3+ T cells (76.5%), with 42.1% being CD4+ and 39.2% CD8+ T cells. Additionally, monocytes accounted for 21.2% of CD45+ cells, with small populations of natural killer cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells also present. These findings emphasize the predominance of T cells, particularly CD4+ subsets, in the immune response following IAF. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing targeted interventions to prevent PTOA. Future research should focus on elucidating the specific roles of these immune cell populations in PTOA progression and exploring potential therapeutic strategies.

Purpose: Bone marrow aspirate concentrate can be used as an additive to surgical treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus. This systematic literature review aims to study the effect of the additional use of bone marrow aspirate concentrate on top of a surgical treatment for osteochondral lesions of the talus on clinical outcomes compared to surgical treatment alone., Methods: An online literature search was conducted using PubMed (Medline), Embase (Ovid), and the Cochrane library for all studies comparing a surgical intervention with bone marrow aspirate concentrate, with a surgical intervention without bone marrow aspirate concentrate. The methodological quality was rated according to the methodological index for non-randomised studies checklist. The primary outcome measure were clinical outcomes. Secondary outcome measures consisted of revision rate, complication rate, radiographic outcome measures and histological analyses. Subgroups were created based on type of surgical intervention used in the studies. If multiple articles were included in a subgroup, a linear random-effects model was used to compare the bone marrow aspirate concentrate-augmented group with the control group., Results: Out of 1006 studies found, eight studies with a total of 718 patients were included. The methodological quality, assessed according to the methodological index for non-randomised studies checklist, was weak. A significantly better functional outcome measures (p < 0.05) was found in the subgroup treated with bone marrow stimulation + bone marrow aspirate concentrate compared to the group treated with bone marrow stimulation alone, based on three non-blinded studies. No significant differences regarding clinical outcomes were found in the subgroups comparing matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation with matrix-induced bone marrow aspirate concentrate, osteochondral autologous transplantation alone with osteochondral autologous transplantation + bone marrow aspirate concentrate and autologous matrix-induced chondrogenesis plus peripheral blood concentrate vs. matrix-associated stem cell transplantation bone marrow aspirate concentrate., Conclusion: There is insufficient evidence to support a positive effect on clinical outcomes of bone marrow aspirate concentrate as an additive to surgical treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus. However, based on the safety reports and initial results, sufficiently powered, patient- and researcher-blinded, prospective randomised controlled trials are justified and recommended. Until then, we advise not to implement a therapy (addition of bone marrow aspirate concentrate) without clinical evidence that justifies the additional costs involved., Level of Evidence: Level III., (© 2023. The Author(s) under exclusive licence to European Society of Sports Traumatology, Knee Surgery, Arthroscopy (ESSKA).)

Background: Current cartilage repair therapies do not re-create the complex mechanical interface between cartilage and bone, which is critical for long-term repair durability. New biomaterial designs that include hard tissue-soft tissue interface structures offer promise to improve clinical outcomes., Purpose/hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a naturally derived osteochondral biotemplate with a novel contiguous hard tissue-soft tissue interface in an ovine model as a regenerative solution for articular cartilage defects. It was hypothesized that the osteochondral biotemplate would produce structurally superior repair tissue compared with microfracture over a 13-month period., Study Design: Controlled laboratory study., Methods: Osteochondral biotemplates were manufactured from porcine cancellous bone. Skeletally mature sheep (N = 30) were randomly allocated to 3 groups: early healing stage (euthanasia at 4 months), 6-month treatment, and 13-month treatment. In the early healing stage group, an 8 mm-diameter by 5 mm-deep osteochondral defect was created on the medial femoral condyle and treated at the time of iatrogenic injury with an osteochondral biotemplate. The contralateral limb received the same treatment 2 months later. In the 6- and 13-month treatment groups, 1 limb received the same osteochondral procedure as the early healing stage group. In the contralateral limb, an 8 mm-diameter, full-thickness cartilage defect (1-2 mm deep) was created and treated with microfracture. Cartilage repair and integration were quantitatively and qualitatively assessed with gross inspection, histological evaluation, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Wilcoxon signed-rank and McNemar tests were used to compare the treatments., Results: At 6 and 13 months after treatment, the biotemplate was not present histologically. At 13 months, the biotemplate treatment demonstrated statistically higher histological scores than microfracture for integration with surrounding cartilage (biotemplate: 74 ± 31; microfracture: 28 ± 39; P = .03), type 2 collagen (biotemplate: 72 ± 33; microfracture: 40 ± 38; P = .02), total cartilage (biotemplate: 71 ± 9; microfracture: 59 ± 9; P = .01), and total integration (biotemplate: 85 ± 15; microfracture: 66 ± 20; P = .04). The osteochondral biotemplate treatment produced a notable transient nonneutrophilic inflammatory response that appeared to approach resolution at 13 months. MRI results were not statistically different between the 2 treatments., Conclusion: Even with the inflammatory response, after 13 months, the osteochondral biotemplate outperformed microfracture in cartilage regeneration and demonstrated superiority in integration between the repair tissue and host tissue as well as integration between the newly formed cartilage and the underlying bone., Clinical Relevance: This work has demonstrated the clinical potential of a novel biomaterial template to regenerate the complex mechanical interface between cartilage and the subchondral bone., Competing Interests: One or more of the authors has declared the following potential conflict of interest or source of funding: D.A.D. and E.A.N. are owners of Advanced Regenerative Tech, a small company with a license to the patent that comprises the biomaterial described herein. D.A.D. and E.A.N. are inventors on the patent that has been issued for the material described in this work, US Patent 8702809. L.A.F. has received consulting fees and research support from Arthrex. H.G.P. has received consulting fees from Stryker Corporation and Smith & Nephew, speaking compensation from Arthrex, research support from GE HealthCare, and travel expenses from Siemens Medical Solutions. AOSSM checks author disclosures against the Open Payments Database (OPD). AOSSM has not conducted an independent investigation on the OPD and disclaims any liability or responsibility relating thereto.

Background: Medial malleolar osteotomy has been widely performed for posteromedial osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) to expose the lesion. In osteochondral fragment fixation, bioabsorbable pins should be inserted as perpendicular as possible to obtain the rigid fixation. However, the exposure of the lesion may depend on the osteotomy angle, which affects the pin insertion angles. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between pin insertion and osteotomy angles in the medial malleolar osteotomy., Methods: Twenty-four ankles of 23 patients were included. The malleolar bisector angle which was calculated from radiographs and actual osteotomy angles were measured on radiographs, and the pin insertion and osteotomy angles were measured using MRI. The intersection angle was defined by the tangential line of the tibial plafond and medial malleolar articular facet, and the bisector of this angle was defined as the malleolar bisector angle. The relationship between pin insertion and osteotomy angles was analyzed., Results: There was no significant difference between the actual osteotomy (55.7° ± 6.6°) and malleolar bisector angles (57.4° ± 4.3°) on the radiograph. There was a significant correlation between pin insertion and osteotomy angles (rs = 0.601). The pin insertion angle (54.3° ± 5.9°) in the lower actual osteotomy angle than the malleolar bisector angle was smaller than those in the higher actual osteotomy angle (63.4° ± 8.2°)., Conclusions: This study showed the osteotomy angle affected pin insertion angle. The osteotomy angle should not be smaller than the malleolar bisector angle at medial malleolar osteotomy to insert pins as perpendicular as possible for fixation of posteromedial OLTs., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 The Japanese Orthopaedic Association. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Osteochondral defects of the talus can be effectively treated using microfracture, which is technically safe, accessible, and affordable. However, fibrous tissue and fibrocartilage comprise the majority of tissue repairs resulting from these procedures. These tissue types lack the mechanical characteristics of native hyaline cartilage and might significantly contribute to the decline in long-term outcomes. Recombinant human-bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) has been shown to promote matrix synthesis and increase cartilage formation, thus enhancing chondrogenesis in vitro., Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the treatment ability of combining rhBMP-2 with microfracture in rabbit talus osteochondral defect., Study Design: Controlled laboratory study., Methods: A full-thickness chondral defect (3 × 3 × 2 mm) was constructed in the center talar dome of 24 New Zealand White male rabbits, which were then divided into 4 groups of 6. Each group received the appropriate treatment: group 1 (control; no treatment of defect), group 2 (microfracture treatment), group 3 (rhBMP-2/hydroxyapatite treatment), and group 4 (microfracture combined with rhBMP-2/hydroxyapatite treatment). Animals were sacrificed at 2, 4, and 6 weeks postoperatively. The International Cartilage Regeneration & Joint Preservation Society macroscopic score, which considers the degree of defect repair, the integration to the border zone, and the macroscopic appearance, was used to assess the repaired tissue's macroscopic appearance. Subchondral bone regeneration in defects was analyzed using micro-computed tomography, and the histological findings were graded using a modified version of the Wakitani scoring system for osteochondral repair., Results: At 2, 4, and 6 weeks, micro-computed tomography analysis revealed that groups 3 and 4 exhibited subchondral bone healing that was more significantly improved compared with groups 1. No sample showed excessive bone growth from the subchondral bone area. According to macroscopic and histological results, group 4 showed higher-quality cartilage and more accelerated cartilage regeneration than the other groups over time., Conclusion: These findings show that osteochondral defect repair in a rabbit talus model could be effectively accelerated and improved by combining rhBMP-2 with microfracture., Clinical Relevance: Using rhBMP-2 in combination with microfracture may enhance the repair of talar osteochondral lesions.

Stress fractures of the tarsal navicular bone can be problematic in the athlete. This case details the injury and outcome of an adolescent male athlete who experienced one year of intermittent foot pain without acute trauma. Radiographs and computed tomography demonstrated a triad of a navicular stress fracture, an os supranaviculare, and an osteochondral defect of the navicular bone. The patient underwent successful operative fixation and returned to painless full function with imaging demonstrating healing at six months. Diagnosis of a navicular stress fracture in the setting of both an os supranaviculare and osteochondral lesion of the navicular bone have not been reported elsewhere in the literature. While repetitive loading on the navicular bone can independently produce a stress fracture, the patient had an increased risk for this injury; the presumably pre-existing navicular osteochondral lesion and os supranaviculare may have resulted in decreased effective articular surface area, thereby increasing force on the navicular bone and producing a stress fracture. Understanding navicular stress fractures and concomitant bony pathology contributing to injury is crucial to successful diagnosis, management, and prevention of recurrence., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background: Lesions of the articular cartilage, with or without involvement of the subchondral bone, are a common cause of pain and dysfunction in the knee. Although several treatment options have been developed, the majority of previous clinical trials examined patients with isolated or focal midsized defects, which rarely represent the condition found in the general population. Rather, cartilage lesions are often associated with the presence of mild to moderate osteoarthritic changes., Purpose: The present multicenter randomized controlled trial compared the clinical and radiographic outcomes of an aragonite-based osteochondral implant with a control group (arthroscopic debridement/microfractures) in patients affected by joint surface lesions of the knee, including those with concurrent mild to moderate osteoarthritis., Study Design: Randomized controlled trial; Level of evidence, 1., Methods: A total of 251 patients were enrolled in 26 medical centers according to the following criteria: age 21 to 75 years, up to 3 cartilage defects of International Cartilage Regeneration & Joint Preservation Society grade 3a or above located on the femoral condyles and/or trochlea, total treatable area from 1 to 7 cm 2 , bony defect depth ≤8 mm, and knee osteoarthritis grade 0 to 3 according to Kellgren-Lawrence score. Patients were randomized to the aragonite-based implant or debridement/microfracture control arm in a 2:1 ratio. Evaluation was performed at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months based on overall Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) as the primary endpoint, and the KOOS subscales (Pain, Quality of Life, Activities of Daily Living), percentage of responders, and International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) subjective score as the secondary endpoints. Patients also underwent magnetic resonance imaging evaluation at 12 and 24 months to assess defect fill grade. Failures (ie, need for any secondary treatment) and adverse events were also recorded., Results: The implant group showed a statistically superior outcome in the primary endpoint and all secondary endpoints at each follow-up. The magnitude of improvement in the implant group was twice as large as that in the control group in terms of mean KOOS improvement at 2 years. Responder rate (defined as at least a 30-point improvement in overall KOOS) was 77.8% in the implant group as opposed to 33.6% in the control ( P < .0001). Statistically superior results were seen in the IKDC score as well. At 24 months, 88.5% of the implanted group had at least 75% defect fill on magnetic resonance imaging as compared with 30.9% of controls ( P < .0001). The failure rate was 7.2% for the implant group versus 21.4% for control., Conclusion: This aragonite-based scaffold was safe and effective in the treatment of chondral and osteochondral lesions in the knee, including patients with mild to moderate osteoarthritis, and provided superior outcomes as compared with the control group., Registration: NCT03299959 (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier).

Background: The first-line clinical strategy for small cartilage/osteochondral defects is microfracture (MF). However, its repair efficacy needs improvement., Hypothesis: Appropriate energy radial shockwave stimulation in MF holes would greatly improve repair efficacy in the porcine osteochondral defect model, and it may obtain comparable performance with common tissue engineering techniques., Study Design: Controlled laboratory study., Methods: Osteochondral defect models (8-mm diameter, 3-mm depth) were established in the weightbearing area of Bama pigs' medial femoral condyles. In total, 25 minipigs were randomly divided into 5 groups: control (Con; without treatment), MF, MF augmentation (MF+; treated with appropriate energy radial shockwave stimulation in MF holes after MF), tissue engineering (TE; treated with compounds of microcarrier and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells), and sham (as the positive control). After 3 months of intervention, osteochondral specimens were harvested for macroscopic, radiological, biomechanical, and histological evaluations. The statistical data were analyzed using 1-way analysis of variance., Results: Based on the macroscopic appearance, the smoothness and integration of the repaired tissue in the MF+ group were improved when compared with the Con and MF groups. The histological staining suggested more abundant cartilaginous matrix deposition in the MF+ group versus the Con and MF groups. The general scores of the macroscopic and histological appearances were comparable in the MF+ and the TE groups. The high signal areas of the osteochondral unit in the magnetic resonance images were significantly decreased in the MF+ group, with no difference with the TE group. The micro-computed tomography data demonstrated the safety of direct in situ radial shockwave performance. Biomechanical tests revealed that the repaired tissue's Young modulus was highest in the MF+ group and not statistically different from that in the TE group., Conclusion: Direct in situ radial shockwave stimulation with appropriate energy significantly improves the short-term repair efficacy of MF. More encouragingly, the MF+ group in our study obtained repair performance comparable with the TE therapy., Clinical Relevance: This strategy is easy to perform and can readily be generalized with safety and higher cartilage repair efficacy. Moreover, it is expected to be accomplished under arthroscopy, indicating tremendous clinical transformative value.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the patterns of a large series of tibial plateau fractures with the use of fracture mapping, with regard to different fracture types using the OTA/AO and Schatzker classification. Patients with intra-articular fractures of the tibial plateau were evaluated, using the OTA/AO and Schatzker classification on CT scans. For fracture mapping, the axial slice that completely displayed the tibial joint plane was first identified, then matched to a template congruently, and the fracture lines were identified and reproduced. In addition to epidemiological data (age and gender), the trauma mechanism (high-energy, low-energy, and pathological fracture) was recorded. In total, 271 patients with 278 intra-articular fractures of the tibial head were analyzed, including seven patients with both sides affected. The mean age was 49.1 years (men 46.3 years, women 53.5 years). The majority of fractures was caused by high-energy trauma. No significant difference could be shown with respect to trauma mechanism and resulting fracture type in terms of OTA/AO ( p = 0.352) or Schatzker classification ( p = 0.884). A significant difference could be found with respect to gender and resulting fracture type in terms of OTA/AO ( p = 0.031). 170 (61.2%) were OTA/AO type B fractures, and 108 (38.8%) were type C fractures. Using the Schatzker classification, we found 53 type I (19.1%), 60 type II (21.6%), 27 type III (9.7%), 32 type IV (11.5%), 16 type V (5.8%), and 90 type VI (32.4%) fractures. The main affection was found in the lateral and intermedial column of the tibial plateaus, concerning both OTA/AO and Schatzker classification. The variability of intra-articular tibial head fractures is very high. In consequence, an individual analysis of fracture patterns and therapy planning by using CT scans is crucial., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Maximilian Kerschbaum et al.)

This study was designed to investigate how low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) suppresses traumatic joint inflammation and thereafter affects the progression of posttraumatic osteoarthritis. Intra-articular fracture (IAF) was created in the right knee of rats. LIPUS was applied to the knees with IAFs for 20 min/d for 2 wk-LIPUS(+) group. The study controls included rats that underwent sham surgery but no LIPUS treatment (control group) or underwent IAF surgery without LIPUS treatment-LIPUS(-) group. By histology, at 4 wk, leukocyte infiltration in the synovium was reduced in the LIPUS(+) group. Furthermore, LIPUS treatment reduced CD68 + macrophages in the synovium and limited their distribution mostly in the subintimal synovium. Measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the joint fluid of the LIPUS(+) group was reduced to about one-third that in the LIPUS(-) group. By reducing synovial macrophages and lowering IL-1β in the joint fluid, LIPUS is potentially therapeutic for posttraumatic osteoarthritis., (Copyright © 2020 World Federation for Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) are relatively common. Following the failure of conservative treatment, many operative options have yielded varied results. In this study, midterm outcomes after fresh-frozen osteochondral allograft transplantation for the treatment of OLT were evaluated., Methods: Twenty-five patients (12 women and 13 men) with a mean age 40.4 (range 18-70) years between 2009 and 2014 were enrolled. Of 25 ankles, 3, 13, 4, and 4 were involved with the talus at Raikin zone 3, 4, 6, and 7 as well as one coexisted with zone 4 and 6 lesion. The mean OLT area was 1.82 cm 2 (range, 1.1-3.0). The mean follow-up period was 5.5 years (range, 4-9.3). Outcomes evaluation included the American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot score, visual analog scale score, and 12-item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12)., Result: AOFAS ankle-hindfoot score increased from 74 preoperatively to 94 at 2 years postoperatively ( P < .001) and the SF-12 physical health component scores increased from 32 to 46 points ( P < .001). Incorporation was inspected in all patients in the latest follow-up, and graft subsidence and radiolucency were observed in 2 and 7 cases, respectively, whereas graft collapse and revision OLT graft were not observed. Bone sclerosis was found in 6 of 25 patients., Conclusion: With respect to midterm results, fresh, frozen-stored allograft transplantation might be an option in the management of symptomatic OLT., Level of Evidence: Level IV, retrospective case series.

The association of ipsilateral talar and calcaneal fractures is an uncommon combination and is typically the result of a high-energy trauma. It is often associated with comminution, marked fracture displacement, and soft-tissue compromise. Obtaining satisfactory clinical and radiographic results is very challenging. Residual deformities, multiple procedures, and limitations are usually the norm. Therefore, studies have suggested that primary arthrodesis may represent the best option of surgical treatment. In this study, we report a case of a 30-year-old male patient with a rare combination of a highly comminuted transcalcaneal fracture-dislocation associated with a talar neck fracture successfully treated with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) with an 18-month follow-up. This case demonstrates that even when there are associated fractures of the talus and calcaneus with severe bone loss, ORIF may provide satisfactory outcomes in the short-term postoperative period. Levels of Evidence : Level V: Case report.

Necroptotic cell death is characterized by an activation of RIPK3 and MLKL that leads to plasma membrane permeabilization and the release of immunostimulatory cellular contents. High levels of chondrocyte death occur following intra-articular trauma, which frequently leads to post-traumatic osteoarthritis development. The aim of this study is to assess necroptosis levels in cartilage post-trauma and to examine whether chondrocyte necroptotic mechanisms may be investigated and modified in vitro. Fractured human and murine cartilage, analysed immunohistochemically for necroptosis marker expression, demonstrated significantly higher levels of RIPK3 and phospho-MLKL than uninjured controls. Primary murine chondrocytes stimulated in vitro with the TNFα and AKT-inhibitor alongside the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk exhibited a significant loss of metabolic activity and viability, accompanied by an increase in MLKL phosphorylation, which was rescued by further treatment of chondrocytes with necrostatin-1. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated morphological features of necroptosis in chondrocytes following TNFα and Z-VAD-fmk treatment. Release of dsDNA from necroptotic chondrocytes was found to be significantly increased compared to controls. This study demonstrates that cartilage trauma leads to a high prevalence of necroptotic chondrocyte death, which can be induced and inhibited in vitro, indicating that both necroptosis and its consequential release of immunostimulatory cellular contents are potential therapeutic targets in post-traumatic arthritis treatment.

Objective: Acute synovial inflammation following joint trauma is associated with posttraumatic arthritis. Synovial macrophages have been implicated in degenerative changes. In this study, we sought to elucidate the role of intra-articular macrophages in the acute inflammatory response to fracture in the mouse knee., Method: A closed articular fracture was induced in two models of synovial macrophage depletion: genetically-modified MaFIA mice administered AP20187 to induce programmed macrophage apoptosis, and wild-type C57BL/6 mice administered clodronate liposomes, both via intra-articular injection. Synovial inflammation, bone morphology, and levels of F4/80+ macrophages, NOS2+ M1 macrophages, and CD206+ M2 macrophages were quantified 7 days after fracture using histology and micro-computed tomography., Results: Intra-articular macrophage depletion with joint injury did not reduce acute synovitis or the number of synovial macrophages 7 days after fracture in either macrophage-depleted MaFIA mice or in clodronate-treated C57BL/6 mice. In macrophage-depleted MaFIA mice, macrophage polarity shifted to a dominance of M1 macrophages and a reduction of M2 macrophages in the synovial stroma, indicating a shift in M1/M2 macrophage ratio in the joint following injury. Interestingly, MaFIA mice depleted 2 days prior to fracture demonstrated increased synovitis (P = 0.003), reduced bone mineral density (P = 0.0004), higher levels of M1 macrophages (P = 0.013), and lower levels of M2 macrophages (not statistically significant, P=0.084) compared to control-treated MaFIA mice., Conclusion: Our findings indicate that macrophages play a critical immunomodulatory role in the acute inflammatory response surrounding joint injury and suggest that inhibition of macrophage function can have prominent effects on joint inflammation and bone homeostasis after joint trauma., (Copyright © 2020 Osteoarthritis Research Society International. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The treatment of comminuted fractures of distal humerus poses a challenge for orthopaedics. Previous studies assessing the global stiffness of the bone - stabilizer system - made it impossible to explicitly indicate an optimal configuration of the locking plates in the treatment of this kind of fractures. The aim of the present research was to comparatively analyze the stabilization conditions of intraarticular fractures of distal humerus with the use of various configurations of the stabilizer., Methods: The research was based on the analysis of mutual displacements of bone fragments. Such evaluation was performed with the use of numerical simulation conducted with the use of the finite element method. A realistic model of humerus was based on the CT data. Three spatial configurations of the stabilizer (parallel, posteromedial and posterolateral) were considered. The mutual displacements of bone fragments as well as the deformity of the stabilizer under various loading conditions were analyzed., Results: In most cases, the parallel setting of the plates ensures a better stabilization of the bone fragments than the perpendicular configuration. The most difficult conditions of stabilization were obtained for the lateral bone fragment. The value of the fragments' displacements significantly increases for loading directions occurring with ascending flexion angle of the joint., Conclusions: In most cases, the parallel setting of the plates ensures a better stabilization of the bone fragments than the perpendicular configuration.

Purpose: Osteochondral lesions (OCLs) of the talus are a challenging and increasingly recognized problem in chronic ankle pain. Many novel techniques exist to try and treat this challenging entity. Difficulties associated with treating OCLs include lesion location, size, chronicity, and problems associated with potential graft harvest sites. Matrix-associated stem cell transplantation (MAST) is one such treatment described for larger lesions > 15 mm 2 or failed alternative therapies. This cohort study describes a 3 year review of the outcomes of talar lesions treated with MAST., Methods: A review of all patients treated with MAST by a single surgeon was conducted. Pre-operative radiographs, MRIs, and FAOS outcome questionnaire scores were reviewed. Intraoperative classification was undertaken to correlate with imaging. Post-operative outcomes included FAOS scores, return to sport, revision surgery/failure of treatment, and progression to ankle fusion., Results: In this study, 38 OCLs in 32 patients were identified. Median patient age was 35 years of which (68.8%) were male. Median length of follow-up was 36.7 months (range 12-64 months). (83%) returned to playing sport. Twenty-three patients underwent MAST in the setting of a failed previous operative attempt, with just nine having MAST as a first option. Nine patients out of 32 had a further procedure. Improvements were seen in all domains of the FAOS (p < 0.05)., Conclusion: MAST has demonstrated encouraging results in lesions which prove challenging to treat, even in a "failed microfracture" cohort., Level of Evidence: IV.

Purpose: To evaluate complication rates and postoperative outcomes in patients with osteochondral lesions of the talus who underwent an autologous matrix-induced chondrogenesis (AMIC) procedure with autologous spongiosa grafting without malleolar osteotomy., Methods: A total of 23 patients with a mean age of 35.6 ± 13.9 years were included in this study. The mean follow-up was 33.5 ± 10.4 months (range 24-52.9 months). The clinical outcomes were evaluated using the visual analog scale (VAS) and the Foot Function Index (FFI). Postoperatively, lesion healing was assessed using the magnetic resonance observation of cartilage repair tissue (MOCART) protocol., Results: There were no intraoperative or perioperative complications. In one patient, arthroscopic arthrolysis was performed due to painful arthrofibrosis. The mean VAS significantly decreased from 7.6 ± 1.1 (range 4.2-9.3) to 1.4 ± 2.2 (range 0-7.4) (P < 0.001). The mean FFI significantly improved from 46.8 ± 14.3 (range 24.3-80.8) to 15.9 ± 11.4 (range 10.0-51.7) (P < 0.001). The mean MOCART score at 1-year follow-up was 74.1 ± 12.4 (range 50-95). Both preoperative and postoperative pains were significantly higher for smokers when compared to non-smokers., Conclusions: The results of the present study study indicate that AMIC procedure can be performed through the anterolateral and anteromedial arthrotomy without malleolar osteotomy. Thus, the possible complications associated with malleolar osteotomy can be avoided. The AMIC procedure without a malleolar osteotomy can be considered a safe and reliable procedure in patients with osteochondral lesions localized anterior to the midline in the sagittal plane., Level of Evidence: Therapeutic case series, Level IV.

Objectives: The purpose of this study is to analyze posteromedial fragment morphology using two-dimensional computed tomography fracture mapping and to compare posteromedial fragment morphology in various Schatzker type tibial plateau fractures., Materials & Methods: One hundred twenty-seven consecutive AO/OTA B- and C-type tibial plateau fractures were retrospectively analyzed using 2DCT fracture mapping. The posteromedial articular fracture angle and articular surface areas of all fractures with posteromedial fragments were calculated. Based on biomechanical studies, posteromedial fragments with coronal fracture angles >68° were considered amenable for anterolateral stabilization with standardized plating. Kruskall-Wallis non-parametric test was used for statistical comparison of morphological features of posteromedial fragments between the various Schatzker types., Results: Forty-seven out of 127 tibial plateau fractures included a posteromedial fragment. The mean posteromedial articular fracture angle was 44° (range: 2°-90 o, standard deviation: 23°). Forty fragments (85%) had a fracture angle of <68°, increasing the risk for insufficient stabilization with standardized anterolateral plating. The mean articular surface area was 34% of the entire tibial plateau (range: 7%-53%, SD: 12%). There were no significant differences in posteromedial fragment morphology between Schatzker type IV, V, and VI fractures., Discussion and Conclusion: Posteromedial fragments commonly occur not only in Schatzker type V and VI, but also in Schatzker type IV tibial plateau fractures. Eighty-five percent of tibial plateau fractures with a posteromedial fragment may benefit from non-standard customized lateral plating, or may require an additional medial or posterior surgical approach for fracture-specific fixation to optimize screw purchase and biomechanical stability., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: This study examined a palmar beak fracture model to determine which thumb carpometacarpal (CMC) joint ligament is the primary ligament relevant to the pattern of injury., Methods: Six fresh-frozen cadaveric wrists were used. The radius, ulna, and first metacarpal were secured and tested with a materials testing system, holding the wrist in 20° extension, 20° ulnar deviation, and 30° palmar abduction of the first metacarpal. Testing consisted of preconditioning cycles followed by compressive loading at 100 mm/s. We confirmed fractures with fluoroscopy and dissected the specimens to examine the CMC joint ligaments. The metacarpal was stressed through a range of motion to determine which maneuvers reduced or displaced the fractures., Results: Our model successfully created palmar beak fractures in all cadaveric specimens. All fractures were displaced and intra-articular. The anterior oblique ligament (AOL) was thin and partially attached to the palmar beak fracture fragment. The ulnar collateral ligament was attached in its entirety to the fracture fragment and represented a thicker, more robust ligament compared with the AOL. Radial abduction and pronation of the metacarpal reduced fracture displacement. Extension of the CMC joint or tensioning the AOL did not decrease fracture displacement., Conclusions: This model successfully created a reproducible and clinically relevant palmar beak fracture in a biomechanical setting. The primary ligament attached to the palmar beak fracture fragment was the ulnar collateral ligament, and not the AOL as previously described. These findings suggest that the AOL may not be a substantial contributor to palmar beak fracture morphology., Clinical Relevance: A refined description of the ligamentous anatomy of the palmar break fracture enhances opportunities for improved reduction and treatment of this common hand injury., (Copyright © 2019 American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Open articular fractures are an important issue due to their increasing incidence, along with the rise in motorcycle accidents. Oncology experience with allograft in orthopedics may be extended to cases of traumatic bone loss., Clinical Case: A 37-year-old man with an open fracture of the distal femur and proximal tibia presented a massive bone loss of the lateral femoral condyle after a motorcycle accident. Following Damage Control Surgery, a considerable lateral femoral condyle allograft was used to restore the joint anatomy., Results: After an intensive rehabilitation program and two subsequent arthroscopic arthrolyses, the patient resumed walking without aids and recovered from stiffness (R.O.M. 0-130°). An MRI performed at median follow-up, revealed a favorable integration of the allograft., Discussion: Allografts are a reasonable reconstructive option for young individuals with massive bone loss. An appropriately sized allograft is essential to restore an acceptable function as seen in the herein case., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cartilage lesions are a significant cause of morbidity and impaired knee function; however, cartilage repair procedures have failed to reproduce native cartilage to date. Thus, osteochondral allograft (OCA) transplantation represents a 1-step procedure to repair large chondral defects without the donor site morbidity of osteochondral autograft transplantation., Purpose: To perform a systematic review of clinical outcomes and failure rates after OCA transplantation in the knee at a minimum mean 2 years' follow-up., Study Design: Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4., Methods: A systematic review of the literature regarding the existing evidence for clinical outcomes and failure rates of OCA transplantation in the knee joint was performed using the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed, and MEDLINE from studies published between 1980 and 2017. Inclusion criteria were as follows: clinical outcomes and failure rates of OCAs for the treatment of chondral defects in the knee joint, English language, mean follow-up of 2 years and minimum follow-up of 18 months, minimum study size of 20 patients, and human studies. The methodological quality of each study was assessed using a modified version of the Coleman methodology score., Results: The systematic search identified 19 studies with a total of 1036 patients. The mean 5-year survival rate across the studies included in this review was 86.7% (range, 64.1%-100.0%), while the mean 10-year survival rate was 78.7% (range, 39.0%-93.0%). The mean survival rate was 72.8% at 15 years (range, 55.8%-84.0%) and 67.5% at 20 years (range, 66.0%-69.0%). The weighted mean patient age was 31.5 years (range, 10-82 years), and the weighted mean follow-up was 8.7 years (range, 2-32 years). The following outcome measures showed significant improvement from preoperatively to postoperatively: d'Aubigné-Postel, International Knee Documentation Committee, Knee Society function, and Lysholm scores. The weighted mean reoperation rate was 30.2% (range, 0%-63%). The weighted mean failure rate was 18.2% (range, 0%-31%). Of note, revision cases, patellar lesions, and bipolar lesions demonstrated worse survival rates., Conclusion: Improved patient-reported outcomes can be expected after OCA transplantation, with a survival rate of 78.7% at 10 years. Revision cases, patellar lesions, and bipolar lesions were associated with worse survival rates; therefore, utilization of the most appropriate index cartilage restoration procedure and proper patient selection are key to improving results.

Background: Subchondral bone marrow edema (BME) has been associated with articular cartilage loss, with the potential to be a negative prognostic indicator for clinical outcomes after microfracture. However, no single study has investigated the association between BME and clinical outcomes after microfracture for osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs) at midterm follow-up., Purpose: To clarify the association between postoperative subchondral BME and clinical outcomes in patients treated with microfracture for OLTs at both short-term and midterm follow-up using a grading system that classified the extent of BME of the talus., Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3., Methods: Patients who underwent microfracture between 2008 and 2013 were assessed at 2- and 4-year postoperative follow-up. BME was evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging, and the presence of subchondral BME was determined with fat-suppressed T2-weighted sequences. Clinical outcomes were evaluated using the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS). P < .05 was considered to be statistically significant., Results: Forty-three (83%) of 52 eligible patients were included. No significant differences were found in the FAOS between the BME and no BME groups at 2-year follow-up (83.1 ± 6.5 vs 88.6 ± 8.0, respectively; P = .109), but there was a significant difference at 4-year follow-up (77.5 ± 11.1 vs 84.7 ± 8.4, respectively; P = .041). A significant difference was found among BME grades at 4-year follow-up (grade 0: 84.7 ± 7.4, grade 1: 80.1 ± 10.5, grade 2: 74.0 ± 10.3, and grade 3: 67.5 ± 7.1; P = .035). A post hoc analysis showed significant differences between grades 0 and 2, 0 and 3, and 1 and 3 ( P = .041, .037, and .048, respectively). In addition, at 4-year follow-up, a significant correlation was noted between the FAOS and BME grade ( r = -0.453, P = .003) but not at 2-year follow-up ( r = -0.212, P = .178). Seventy-four percent of patients still had subchondral BME at 4-year follow-up after microfracture for OLTs., Conclusion: Patients with subchondral BME at midterm follow-up after microfracture for OLTs had worse clinical outcomes than those without subchondral BME. In addition, the degree of subchondral BME at midterm follow-up was correlated with clinical outcomes. However, at short-term follow-up, there were no significant differences in clinical outcomes based on both the presence and degree of BME, and no correlation was found between clinical outcomes and the degree of BME. The current study suggests that BME at short-term follow-up is a normal physiological reaction. However, BME at midterm follow-up after microfracture for OLTs may be pathological and is associated with poorer clinical outcomes.

Purpose: The primary goal of this study is to create a frequency map of a series of the quadrilateral plate fractures, explore the characteristics of fracture map and to further propose a new classification., Methods: We used a consecutive series of 238 quadrilateral plate fractures to create 3-dimensional reconstruction images, which were superimposed and oriented to fit a model hemipelvis template by aligning specific pelvis landmarks. Fracture lines were identified and traced to create a quadrilateral plate fracture map., Results: Fracture location corresponded with fracture line distribution. Of 238 fractures that met the criteria for inclusion, most fractures involved the "A + B" zone (n = 156; 65%), whereas the remaining minority of the fractures involved the "A" zone (n = 59; 25%) and the "B" zone (n = 23; 10%). Correspondingly the incidence of C-type fracture ("A + B"zone) was significantly higher than that of A-type fracture and B-type fracture. Additionally the most common pattern was demonstrated by coexisting fracture lines; nearly half (48%) of the fractures involved the upper section of the quadrilateral plate traversing both zones, 46% traced almost vertically to the arcuate line, and 25% extended to the posterior aspect. Furthermore, the high fracture line intensity (n = 172; 74%) formed a Gun-shaped pattern, which pointed to the ischial tuberosity., Conclusions: The map shows that the comminution is prone to traverse the quadrilateral plate in the sagittal direction among nearly two-thirds of all fractures. Moreover, Surgically treated quadrilateral plate fractures display very common patterns. The most common pattern is the upper fracture in nearly half of the fractures. Knowledge of these patterns can aid surgeons during diagnosis, preoperative planning, and execution of surgical strategies., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: It has been previously suggested that the use of regenerative promoters, which include bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or natural growth factors supplement such as platelet-rich concentrate (PRC) could promote cartilage regeneration. However, the notion that the concurrent use of both promoters may provide a synergistic effect that improves the repair outcome of focal cartilage injury has not been previously demonstrated. This study was thus conducted to determine whether the concomitant use of PRC could further enhance the reparative potential of MSCs encapsulated in alginate transplanted into focal cartilage injury in rabbits., Methods: Artifically created full thickness cartilage defects were made on the weight-bearing region of medial femoral condyles in bilateral knees of New Zealand White rabbits (N = 30). After one month, the right knee was treated with either i) PRC (n = 10), ii) MSCs (n = 10), or, iii) a combination of PRC and MSCs (PRC + MSC) (n = 10), all encapsulated in alginate. The left knee remained untreated (control). Rabbits were sacrificed at 3 and 6 months after treatment. Cartilage tissue regeneration was accessed using ICRS morphologic scoring, histologic grading by O'Driscoll scoring, immunohistochemical staining and quantitative analysis of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) per total protein content., Results: At 3 months, transplantation using PRC alone was equally effective as MSCs in inducing the repair of cartilage defects. However, PRC + MSC resulted in significantly higher ICRS and O'Driscoll scores (p < 0.05) as compared to other groups. The regenerated tissues from the PRC + MSC group also had stronger staining for Safranin-O and collagen type II. By 6 months, in addition to superior ICRS and O'Driscoll scores as well as stronger staining, glycosaminoglycan per total protein content was also significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the PRC + MSC group (3.4 ± 0.3 μg/mg) as compared to the MSC (2.6 ± 0.2 μg/mg) or PRC (2.1 ± 0.2 μg/mg) groups., Conclusion: PRC enhances the reparative effects of MSC in treating focal articular cartilage injuries., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the clinical outcomes of the articular cartilage paste graft procedure at a minimum of 10 years from surgery. It is hypothesized that articular cartilage paste grafting can provide patients with a durable repair of severe full-thickness osteochondral injuries, measured by persistence of procedure-induced benefit and subjective outcome scores at 10 or more years., Methods: Seventy-four patients undergoing paste grafting at a mean age of 45.3 ± 10.8 years (range 13-69 years) were followed up at a mean of 16.8 ± 2.4 years (range 10.6-23.2 years) post-operatively using validated subjective outcome measures; Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was performed to estimate expected population benefit time., Results: Kaplan-Meier estimated median benefit time of 19.1 years (mean: 16.6 ± 0.9 years) for all patients undergoing paste grafting. Thirty-one (41.9 %) patients had progressed to arthroplasty at a mean of 9.8 ± 5.6 years (range 0.4-20.6 years). Ninety percent of patients reported that the procedure provided good to excellent pain relief. Median IKDC subjective score increased significantly at most recent follow-up (70.1) compared to preoperative (55.7, p = 0.013). Median WOMAC scores decreased significantly from 26 to 14 (p = 0.001). Median Tegner score increase from 4 to 6 was not found to be significant (ns). VAS pain averaged 23/100 at most recent follow-up., Conclusions: Patients who underwent the paste grafting reported improved pain, function, and activity levels for an expected mean of 16.6 years, and for those who ultimately progressed to knee replacement, surgical treatment including the paste graft was able to delay arthroplasty until a mean age of 60.2 years, an age at which the procedure is commonly performed. Full-thickness articular cartilage loss can be successfully treated, reducing pain, and improving function, using this single-step, inexpensive arthroscopic procedure., Level of Evidence: IV.

Introduction: Classical fracture classifications (AO/OTA, Schatzker) are commonly used to characterize bicondylar proximal tibial fractures. However, none of these classifications allows for a treatment algorithm. The aim of our study was to use 3D appearance of these fractures in CT imaging to improve the clinical value of the classification., Materials and Methods: 3D appearance of 81 CT scans of bicondylar proximal tibial fractures were systematically analyzed and were classified in 3 subtypes, based on the fracture lines orientation. The novel classification was compared for reliability and for clinical relevance with AO and Schatzker classification., Results: A total of 159 fracture lines were identified which were most frequently oriented in sagittal (89/159), and in coronal (41/159) direction. Based on the orientation of the major fracture lines three fracture types were defined. A special emphasis was drawn to the coronal fracture line of the medial plateau leading to a surgical treatment algorithm. Interobserver reliability was analyzed for all 81 patients resulting in an excellent reliability of К=0.936 for the 3D classification scheme compared to К=0.720 for the AO/OTA, К=0.785 for the Schatzker classification. Correlations with clinical parameters were only observed for the 3D classification., Discussion: The presented classification scheme based on the 3D geometry of bicondylar proximal tibial fractures demonstrates a good reliability of clinical relevance., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The impact of isolated malleolar fractures on the intra-articular load distribution within the ankle joint has been studied in several biomechanical cadaver studies during the last decades. Recently, computed tomography osteoabsorptiometry (CT-OAM) has been proposed as a valuable tool to assess intra-articular joint load distribution in vivo. The purpose of this retrospective matched pair analysis was to apply CT-OAM to evaluate in vivo changes of talar load distribution after lateral malleolar fractures in patients treated with open anatomic reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) compared to patients treated non-operatively., Methods: Ten matched pairs of patients with isolated lateral malleolar fractures with a maximum fracture dislocation of 3mm and a median follow-up of 42 month were included into the study. Patients were matched for age, gender, and fracture dislocation. Range of ankle motion (ROM), the AOFAS hindfoot score and the Short Form 36 (SF-36) were evaluated. CT-OAM analysis of the injured and the uninjured contralateral ankles were performed., Results: Patients treated with ORIF showed a significant lower ROM compared to the uninjured contralateral ankle. No differences were found regarding clinical scores between patients treated by ORIF and those treated non-operatively. CT-OAM analysis showed symmetrical distribution of subchondral bone mineralization in comparison to the uninjured contralateral ankles for both groups of patients., Conclusions: The data of this study suggest that isolated lateral malleolar fractures with fracture gaps up to 3mm are not associated with a change of the tibio-talar joint load distribution in vivo. Therefore, patients with isolated minimally displaced lateral malleolar fractures may achieve good clinical long-term outcome following non-operative treatment., Level of Evidence: Level III, retrospective cohort study., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Supercutaneous (external) fixation with locking plate is utilized for fixation of long bone fractures. One retrospective study for open reduction and supercutaneous fixation of the calcaneus is reported. We prospectively evaluated the use of this method of fixation combined with percutaneous reduction., Materials and Methods: Between January 2014 and June 2015, 32 displaced calcaneus fractures in 30 patients were stabilized with percutaneous reduction and super-cutaneous fixation. They were 24 males and six females. The mean age was 37.9±5.7 years (21-55). All cases were closed. The time to surgery, complications, radiographic alignment, and time to radiographic union were recorded. Clinical results at the final follow-up were assessed by evaluating Bohler's angles for the radiographic alignment, and the system of the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) for the functional outcome., Results: According to the Sanders' classification, two cases were type II, 17 cases were type III and 13 cases were type IV. The preoperative average Bohler's angle was 10.57°±4.8. The postoperative X-ray films demonstrated that the average Bohler's angle improved to 29.07°±5.9 (p<0.001). At the time of radiologic healing (about 3 months), the plates and screws were removed under general anesthesia. The average follow-up was 13.2 months (11-18). Four cases (type IV) showed mal-union and heel pain. According to (AOFAS) rating, the fine score was 87.1±17.1 points., Conclusion: Super-cutaneous fixation with percutaneous reduction of calcaneal fracture is an effective method in type II and III and can be effective with type IV but with less favorable results., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Currently existing classifications of tibial plateau fractures do not help to guide surgical strategy. Recently, a segment-based mapping of the tibial plateau has been introduced in order to address fractures with a fracture-specific surgical approach. The goal of the present study was to analyze incidence and fracture specifics according to a new 10-segment classification of the tibial plateau., Methods: A total of 242 patients with 246 affected knees were included (124 females, 118 males, mean age 51.9±16.1years). Fractures were classified according to the OTA/AO classification. Fracture pattern was analyzed with respect to a 10-segment classification based on CT imaging of the proximal tibial plateau 3cm below the articular surface., Results: 161 Patients suffered an OTA/AO type 41-B and 85 patients an OTA/AO type 41-C tibial plateau fracture. Females had an almost seven times higher risk to suffer a fracture due to low-energy trauma (OR 6.91, 95% CI (3.52, 13.54), p<0.001) than males. In 34% of the patients with affection of the medial tibial plateau, a fracture comminution, primarily due to low-energy trauma (p<0.001), was observed. In type B fractures, the postero-latero-lateral (65.2%), the antero-latero-lateral (64.6%) and the antero-latero-central (60.9%) segment were most frequently affected. Every second type C fracture showed an unique fracture line and zone of comminution. The tibial spine was typically involved (89.4%). A typical fracture pattern of high-energy trauma demonstrated a zone of comminution of the lateral plateau and a split fracture in the medial plateau. The most frequently affected segments were the postero-latero-central (85.9%), postero-central (84.7%), and antero-latero-central (78.8%) segment., Conclusion: Posterior segments were the most frequently affected in OTA/AO type B and C fractures. Acknowledging the restricted visibility of posterior segments, whose reduction and fixation is crucial for long-term success, our findings implicate the use of posterior approaches more often in the treatment of tibial plateau fractures. Also, low-energy trauma was identified as an important cause for tibial plateau fractures., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Intra-articular calcaneus fractures result in heel shortening, widening, varus malalignment, and loss of height. Little has been written regarding superior displacement of the calcaneal tuber, which warrants consideration as previous literature has demonstrated issues arising from a shortened triceps surae. We sought to determine the amount of tuber elevation seen in calcaneus fractures as compared to normal calcanei and propose 2 new measurements that aid in quantifying displacement and may aid in the surgical management of calcaneus fractures., Methods: Lateral radiographs of 220 normal calcanei were examined. Two novel measurements, the talo-tuber angle and talo-tuber distance, were used to establish normative data for calcaneal tuber positioning. Lateral radiographs of 50 calcaneus fractures treated operatively were examined and the same measurements were obtained before and after surgery to determine the amount of superior tuber elevation., Results: Normative data demonstrated a mean of 38.6 degrees (±SD = 4.3, range: 26.2-58.4) when using the talo-tuber angle and 54.5 mm (±SD = 7.3, range: 36.2-72.6) when using the talo-tuber distance in normal calcanei. Patients sustaining calcaneus fractures demonstrated a mean of 29.5 degrees (±SD = 5.9, range: 20-46.4) for the talo-tuber angle and 39.0 mm (±SD = 9.4, range: 24.0-62.9) for the talo-tuber distance. These values changed to a mean of 37 degrees (±SD = 5.2, range: 26.4-50) for the talo-tuber angle and 51.8 mm (±SD = 8.6, range: 33.2-75.7) for the talo-tuber distance after surgery. There was a statistically significant difference (P value < .01) for both talo-tuber angle and distance between normal and fractured calcanei. Inter- and intra-observer agreement was excellent., Conclusion: Superior displacement of the calcaneal tuber is a deformity seen in intra-articular calcaneus fractures that has been poorly described that warrants increased awareness and correction at the time of surgery. We propose 2 novel measurements with associated normative data that may aid surgeons in quantifying this deformity and assessing anatomic reduction., Level of Evidence: Level III, comparative study., (© The Author(s) 2016.)

Introduction: The architecture of joints almost certainly influences the nature of intra-articular fractures, and the concavity is much more likely to fail than the associated convexity. However, local differences in periarticular bone density potentially also plays a critical role. The purpose of this study was to investigate if there was any difference in periarticular bone density in intra-articular fractures between the two opposing joint surfaces, comparing the convexity to the concavity., Materials and Methods: We retrospectively identified a series of 1003 intra-articular fractures of the hip, knee, and ankle; 129 of these patients had previously undergone CT scanning during their routine clinical assessment. Periarticular bone density was assessed using Hounsfield Units (HU) as a measure of the composite density of the adjacent bone. Bone density was compared between the opposite sides of each joint, to determine if a relationship exists between local bone density and the risk of articular surface fracture., Results: There was a statistically significant difference in density between the two opposing surfaces, with the convexity 19% more dense than the concavity (p=0.0001). The knee exhibited the largest difference (55%), followed by the hip (18%); in the ankle, an inverse relationship was observed, and the concave surface was paradoxically denser (5%). There was no significant difference between those cases where the concavity failed in isolation compared to those where the convexity also failed (p=0.28)., Conclusion: When the results were pooled for all three joints, there was a statistically significant higher local bone density demonstrated on the convex side of an intra-articular fracture. However, while this relationship was clearly exhibited in the knee, this was less evident in the other two joints; in the ankle the reverse was true, and the local bone adjacent to the concavity was found to have greater density. This suggests local bone density plays only a minor role in determining the nature of intra-articular fractures., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aims: The degree of displacement of a fracture of the distal radius is an important factor which can be assessed using simple radiographic measurements. Our aim was to investigate the reliability and reproducibility of these measurements and to determine if they should be used clinically., Patients and Methods: A 10% sample was randomly generated from 3670 consecutive adult patients who had presented to University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust between 2007 and 2010 with a fracture of the distal radius. Radiographs of the 367 patients were assessed by two independent reviewers. Four measurements of displacement of the fracture were recorded and the inter-observer correlation assessed using the intra-class correlation coefficient., Results: Inter-observer correlation was high (> 0.8) for three of the four measurements. Repeat measurements of a further randomly generated 10% sample (37) were made four weeks later to assess intra-observer agreement, which was again high (> 0.8) for the same three parameters (radial height, radial inclination and dorsal/palmar tilt). Correlation was poor for articular step and gap., Conclusion: Radiographic assessment of radial angle, radial inclination and dorsal/palmar tilt is a reliable method of determining the degree of displacement of a fracture of the distal radius. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1069-73., (©2016 The British Editorial Society of Bone & Joint Surgery.)

Aim: Distal tibial fractures with intra-articular involvement during childhood are injuries with potentially severe complications if not treated promptly. Daily clinical practice indicates that sole use of plain radiographs may lead to misdiagnosis and subsequent erroneous selection of suitable treatment. The role of computed tomography (CT) in the classification and treatment decision of these injuries is unclear. This study aims to determine whether CT evaluation is required in the management of these fractures., Patients and Methods: We assessed 64 distal tibial fractures with intra-articular involvement on two separate occasions in a blinded study, in order to classify the fracture and decide the appropriate treatment approach. In the first part of the study, plain radiographs were evaluated in order to diagnose the type of the fracture and select the appropriate treatment. In the second part, CT scans were performed in the same patients in order to re-evaluate diagnosis and treatment. The study included fractures prior to physeal closure (Salter-Harris III and IV fractures, n=32) as well as transitional fractures (J. Tillaux and triplane fractures, n=32)., Results: According to plain radiographs, 31 patients were diagnosed with SH III fracture, 8 with SH IV, 9 with J. Tillaux and 16 with triplane fracture. Surgical treatment was decided in 18 patients and non-surgical in 46. After CT scan evaluation, 20 patients were diagnosed with SH III, 12 with SH IV, 9 with J. Tillaux, and 23 with triplane fracture. In this occasion the number of patients referred for surgical treatment raised to 42 leaving only 22 patients to be treated conservatively., Conclusions: Computed tomography lead to changes in fracture classification and treatment decision. Treatment decision changed for 24 patients after CT evaluation. Treatment decision in patients with SH III and IV did not change significantly opposed to patients with transitional fractures, where CT scan had major impact on treatment decision. Despite the irradiation of immature skeleton and higher cost containment, this study indicates that patients with transitional distal tibial fractures as well as patients with displaced SH III and IV fractures must undergo CT examination in order to make accurate diagnosis and select the appropriate treatment., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Management of the intraarticular calcaneal fracture is a challenge. The optimal method of treatment remains controversial. This study evaluates the anatomical and functional postoperative outcomes of displaced intraarticular calcaneal fractures that have been treated using three different techniques of ORIF., Patients and Methods: Between 2004 and 2011 we treated 143 patients with calcaneal fractures, 40 of these patients (28%) were treated conservatively. This is a retrospective study of the remaining 103 patients (72%) who were operated on consecutively, mainly by one surgeon (NG). Calcaneal fractures were classified according to the Sanders classification. Three types of osteosynthesis were used: standard anatomical plate (SP), locking anatomical plate (LCP) and standard anatomical plate with autologous bone graft (SP+ABG). Clinical outcome was assessed one year after the operation: anatomical reduction was evaluated according to the analysis of Bohler's angle at final follow-up, and functional assessment was conducted using the Maryland Foot Score (MFS)., Results: The fractures were classified as follows: 35 (34%) Sanders type II, 47 (45.6%) Sanders type III and 21 (20.4%) Sanders type IV. The SP was used in 67 (65%) fractures, LCP in 16 (15.5%) and SP+ABH in 20 (19.4%). The correlation test showed a weak association between the Sanders fracture type and the operation technique (Pearson correlation coefficient r=0.26). The non-parametric tests showed that the fracture type did not significantly influence the postoperative Bohler's angle outcome (p=0.132), or the type of operation (p=0.664). Excellent or good reduction of the posterior calcaneal facet was achieved in all operated fractures. One year after the operation, the distribution of Bohler's angle was normal with a mean 31.9° (SD 4.84) in all three groups. There was no significant difference in the functional postoperative outcome in terms of MFS in the three groups (p=0.601), but the Sanders fracture type had significant influence on the functional postoperative outcome in terms of MFS (p=0.001)., Conclusion: In the representative sample of 103 operatively treated intraarticular calcaneal fractures, anatomical and functional postoperative efficacy outcomes appeared to be similar in all three treatment groups. High-grade displaced intraarticular calcaneal fractures (Sanders IV) had worse functional results irrespective of the type of operation. The optimal method for management of intraarticular calcaneal fracture is operative, using the standard anatomic calcaneal plate. Autologous bone grafting is not required. Large sample comparative studies are still needed., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Ankle fractures are increasing in incidence. The more complicated the lesion is, the higher the risk of developing posttraumatic arthrosis. Severe posttraumatic arthrosis results in a reduced quality of life. Therefore, the treatment of a trimalleolar fractures is crucial. However, the treatment guidelines for posterior malleolar fractures (PMF) are still based on recommendations from 1940. Only a few retrospective studies have been conducted, which analysed patient outcomes based on lateral X-rays of the ankle. The purpose of this retrospective analysis was to survey patient outcomes in relation to the size of the PMF on the basis of CT-scans., Methods: We retrospectively examined 42 patients with trimalleolar fractures with an average follow-up of 2.5 years. Twenty-four patients (57%) received a CT scan of the ankle joint. The radiologic images were analysed for the size of the PMF and the involvement of the joint surface using lateral X-rays and available CT images. We examined all 42 patients clinically and radiologically, and estimated the grade of arthrosis of the ankle in accordance with the Bargon Score and assigned AOFAS Scores for each patient. We divided our patients into different groups according to the size of their PMF and evaluated patient outcomes in accordance with the compiled data first on the basis of X-ray data and then on the basis of CT data., Results: Comparing the measurement results by two different radiologic methods revealed that CT results in a more precise determination of PMF size in contrast to lateral X-rays, by which measurements were generally overrated. The statistical evaluation of our data demonstrated that patients with an osteosynthesis of the PMF and a PMF size of >25% showed signs of posttraumatic arthrosis but had better outcomes in accordance to the AOFAS score. All results were not significant., Conclusion: An exact evaluation of CT images of posterior malleolar fractures in patients with trimalleolar ankle fractures is crucial for the decision to perform an osteosynthesis of the PMF and, therefore, an analysis of patient outcomes. The results of previous studies should be evaluated cautiously due to missing CT data. To date, this is the largest retrospective patient series of patient outcomes based on CT data., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Translation of promising treatments for post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) to patients with intra-articular fracture (IAF) has been limited by the lack of a realistic large animal model. To address this issue we developed a large animal model of IAF in the distal tibia of Yucatan minipigs and documented the natural progression of this injury., Design: Twenty-two fractures were treated using open reduction and internal fixation with either an anatomic reduction or an intentional 2-mm step-off. Pre-operatively, and 3 days, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks post-operatively, animals were sedated for synovial fluid draws and radiographs. Limb loading was monitored at the same time points using a Tekscan Walkway. Animals were sacrificed at 12 weeks and the limbs were harvested for histological evaluation., Results: All animals achieved bony union by 12 weeks, facilitating nearly complete recovery of the initial 60% decrease in limb loading. TNFα, IL1β, IL6, and IL8 concentrations in the fractured limbs were elevated (P < 0.05) at specific times during the 2 weeks after fracture. Histological cartilage degeneration was more severe in the step-off group (0.0001 < P < 0.27 compared to normal) than in the anatomic reconstruction group (0.27 < P < 0.99 compared to normal)., Conclusions: This model replicated key features of a human IAF, including surgical stabilization, inflammatory responses, and progression to osteoarthritic cartilage degeneration, thereby providing a potentially useful model for translating promising treatment options to clinical practice., (Copyright © 2015 Osteoarthritis Research Society International. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The architecture of joints has potentially the greatest influence on the nature of intra-articular fractures. We analysed a large number of intra-articular fractures with two aims: (1) to determine if the pattern of injuries observed supports our conjecture that the local skeletal architecture is an important factor and (2) to investigate whether associated dislocations further affect the fracture pattern., Methods: A retrospective study of intra-articular fractures over a 3.5-year period; 1003 joints met inclusion criteria and were analysed. Three independent investigators determined if fractures affected the convex dome, the concave socket, or if both joint surfaces were involved. Further review determined if a joint dislocation occurred with the initial injury. Statistical analysis was performed using a one-way frequency table, and the χ(2) test was used to compare the frequencies of concave and convex surface fractures. The odds ratios (ORs) were calculated to establish the association between the frequencies of concave and convex surface fractures, as well as between dislocation and either fracture surface involvement., Results: Of the 1003 fractures analysed, 956 (95.3%) involved only the concavity of the joint; in 21 fractures (2.1%) both joint surfaces were involved; and in 26 fractures (2.6%) only the convexity was involved (χ(2)=1654.9, df=2, p<0.0001). As expected, the concavity was 20.8 times more likely to fail than the convexity (11.2-36.6, 95% CI). However, the risk of fracturing the convex surface was 18.6 times higher (9.8-35.2, 95% CI) in association with a simultaneous joint dislocation, compared to those cases without a joint dislocation., Conclusions: These results very strongly support the study hypotheses: the skeletal architecture of joints clearly plays a highly significant role in determining the nature of intra-articular fractures. Intra-articular fractures involving the convexity are much more likely to be associated with a concurrent joint dislocation., (Crown Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The objective of the present study was to evaluate human synovial fluid for inflammatory cytokine concentrations following acute tibial plateau fracture. Our hypothesis was that there would be an elevated inflammatory response following intra-articular fracture, and that the inflammatory response would be greater after high-energy compared with low-energy injuries., Methods: Between December 2011 and June 2013, we prospectively enrolled forty-five patients with an acute tibial plateau fracture. Synovial fluid aspirations were performed on the injured and uninjured knees. Twenty patients who required an external fixator followed by delayed fixation underwent aspiration at both surgical procedures. The concentrations of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12(p70), IL-13, IL-17A, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and macrophage inflammatory protein-1 beta (MIP-1β) were quantified with use of multiplex assays., Results: The forty-five patients had an average age of forty-two years (range, twenty to sixty years). There were twenty-four low-energy and twenty-one high-energy tibial plateau injuries. There was a significant difference between injured and uninjured knees (p < 0.001) with regard to concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-1RA, and MCP-1. There was not a detectable difference in synovial fluid cytokine concentrations between high and low-energy injuries. The concentrations of IL-10 (p < 0.001), IL-1RA (p = 0.002), IL-6 (p < 0.001), IL-8 (p < 0.001), and MCP-1 (p = 0.002) were significantly greater in the injured knee than in the uninjured knee at the second aspiration, at a mean of 9.5 days (range, three to twenty-one days) after the initial injury., Conclusions: There was a significant local inflammatory response following acute tibial plateau fracture. There was not a detectable difference in inflammatory cytokine concentration between high and low-energy injuries. Synovial fluid concentrations of IL-10, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1RA, and MCP-1 remained elevated at the second aspiration., (Copyright © 2015 by The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, Incorporated.)

Background: Reverse Hill-Sachs (RHS) lesions can cause recurrent posterior shoulder instability because of engagement with the posterior glenoid rim; however, the effect of defect size and localization have yet to be determined., Hypothesis: Both size and localization are critical for the engagement of an RHS defect with the posterior glenoid rim., Study Design: Controlled laboratory study., Methods: Ten RHS defects with predefined extent and localization were created through an anterolateral rotator cuff sparing approach in 10 fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulder specimens using a custom-made saw guide. Computed tomography scans of all specimens were completed, and standardized measurements were performed to determine the size (alpha angle) and localization (beta angle) of the defect as well as a combination of both parameters (gamma angle). Internal rotation motions were imposed on the shoulder joint in different arm positions and with varying amount of posterior translation by means of a robot-assisted shoulder simulator. The association between engagement of the defects and the defined parameters (alpha, beta, and gamma angles) was analyzed., Results: In 0° of abduction, a cutoff value between engaging and nonengaging defects of 37.5° for the alpha angle (100% sensitivity; 75% specificity; area under the curve [AUC], 0.875; P = .055) and 36.5° for the beta angle (100% sensitivity; 25% specificity; AUC, 0.708; P = .286) was determined. The gamma angle showed the highest discriminatory power (AUC, 0.938; P = .025) with a cutoff value of 85.5° rendering 100% sensitivity and 75% specificity in the prediction of engagement. An increase in the applied posterior translation force decreased the degrees of internal rotation necessary before engagement occurred. No engagement occurred during internal rotation with the arm in 60° of abduction or 60° of flexion., Conclusion: The size and localization of RHS defects are both critical factors for engagement. The combination of both parameters in terms of the gamma angle measurement might be a helpful tool to identify defects prone to engagement., Clinical Relevance: Not only the size but also the localization is decisive for engagement of RHS defects. The standardized measurement of the gamma angle combines both factors and might be a helpful tool to identify defects prone to engagement warranting surgical treatment., (© 2015 The Author(s).)

We report the case of a 47-year-old man who presented with a pathologic fracture of the middle phalanx of the fourth finger. The treatment of this juxta-articular lesion close to the proximal interphalangeal joint was performed in 2 stages. First, a biopsy was carried out combined with fixation of the fracture by a Suzuki dynamic external fixator. After 6 weeks, a curettage of the confirmed enchondroma was performed with iliac crest grafting, leaving the external fixator for another 4 weeks. With a follow-up of 48 months, a satisfying functional result has been obtained with a remarkable remodeling of the painless proximal interphalangeal joint.

Purpose: To identify with magnetic resonance imaging the location and severity of ligamentous injury after acute elbow dislocations. Based on observations that many elbow dislocations arise from an initial acute valgus load, we hypothesized that all patients would have a high-grade medial injury but not all would demonstrate injury of the lateral ligaments., Methods: The medial collateral ligament was subdivided into anterior bands of the anterior bundle of the medial collateral ligament (MCL) and posterior bands of the anterior bundle of the MCL, whereas the lateral collateral ligament was divided into the lateral ulnar collateral ligament and the radial collateral ligament. Distinction on magnetic resonance imaging was made between normal morphology and low-grade partial tear (< 50% of the ligament fibers), high-grade partial tear (≥ 50%), and full-thickness disruption. The site of disruption was also characterized., Results: Acute magnetic resonance imaging studies for 16 patients were included. No low-grade tears or intact evaluations of either the anterior or posterior bands of the anterior bundle of the MCL were observed; most demonstrated complete tears. The lateral ulnar collateral ligament most frequently showed complete disruption but was occasionally intact. The radial collateral ligament infrequently showed full disruption. Complete tears involving either the anterior or posterior portions of the anterior band of the MCL were significantly more common than complete tears involving the ligaments on the lateral side., Conclusions: After elbow dislocation, complete ligamentous tears were more common on the medial versus the lateral side. Whereas the lateral ligaments were occasionally preserved, this was never observed on the medial side. These data suggest a sequence of failure starting on the medial side with subsequent variable energy dissipation laterally., Type of Study/level of Evidence: Diagnostic IV., (Copyright © 2014 American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Endoprosthetic replacement (EPR) for limb salvage is an established treatment modality for orthopaedic malignancies around the knee. Increasingly, they are being used for non-tumour indications such as fractures, bone loss associated with aseptic loosening, septic loosening and ligament insufficiencies., Methods: We reviewed the evolution and biomechanics of knee EPRs. MEDLINE was searched using the PubMed interface to identify relevant studies pertaining to the use of knee EPRs in non-tumour conditions. Failures, mortality and knee scores were the main outcome measures. Subgroup analysis in the non-tumour conditions was also performed., Results: There were nine studies with an average follow-up of 3.3years (Range 1-5years) describing 241 EPRs used in non-tumour conditions. Re-operation for any reason occurred in 17% (41/241) of cases. The most common complication was infection (15%) followed by aseptic loosening (5%) and periprosthetic fractures (5%). The mortality rate averaged 22%. Infected knee arthroplasties were less likely to have a successful outcome when salvaged with an EPR with failure rates up to 33%., Conclusions: Endoprosthetic replacement is a limb salvage option when other surgical options are unfeasible, especially in low demand elderly patients with limited life expectancy. They have low rates of failure in the medium term., Level of Evidence: Level 1., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Diabetics, smokers, patients with open fractures and drug addicts have shown to be at increased risk of having wound complications with traditional calcaneus fixation. The purpose of the study is to examine if high-risk patients with intra-articular calcaneus fractures can be managed safely using percutaneous reduction and fixation by examining a consecutive series of patients treated by the senior author., Methods: The treatment group consisted of the senior author's first 17 percutaneously treated calcaneus fractures in high-risk patients. Risk factors included: open fracture, smoking, diabetes and cocaine, alcohol and solvent abuse. Reduction techniques included temporary external fixation, inflatable bone tamps, and arthroscopic assisted reduction manoeuvres. Fixation was accomplished with cannulated 4.5mm screws. Patients were followed up for 3 months minimum to look for wound complications and subsidence., Results: Surgery was performed within 15 days from injury (average 6.7 days). Risk factors included: open fracture 1, smoking 16, diabetes 2, and substance abuse 9. Sanders' classification described: six type 2, nine type 3 and two type 4. Bohlers' angle increased from an average of -1.5° (range -37° to +30) to 25.8° (range 7-36°). There were no wound issues or infections with the calcaneal fixation. Reduction was deemed excellent or good in 14, fair in 2 and poor in 1. Loss of Bohlers' angle of >4° occurred in four cases; in three of these, the patients were non-compliant with weight bearing., Conclusion: High-risk patients with intra-articular calcaneus fractures that meet the criteria for surgical management can be managed with percutaneous surgical techniques with low risk of wound complications., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the plain radiographic signs that can be indicative of meniscal injuries in Schatzker type II tibial plateau fractures., Methods: The lateral plateau depression and lateral plateau widening were measured on anteroposterior knee radiographs in 20 patients with Schatzker type II tibial plateau fracture. Meniscal injury was present in 12 patients (three, meniscal tears; nine, peripheral meniscal detachments). The lateral plateau depression and lateral plateau widening measurements were compared between those who had meniscal injury (Group 1) and those who did not (Group 2)., Results: In Group 1, the median lateral plateau depression was 20 mm (IQR: 14-25) and the median lateral plateau widening was 12 mm (IQR: 10-14). In Group 2, the respective values were 10 mm (IQR: 5-17) and 6 mm (IQR: 2-10). There was a statistically significant difference in both parameters when the two groups were compared (p = 0.001)., Conclusions: A plain anteroposterior radiograph depicting a lateral plateau depression ≥14 mm and/or a lateral plateau widening ≥10 mm is associated with a significantly increased risk of meniscal injury in Schatzker type II tibial plateau fractures. These parameters can be used to predict the probable presence of lateral meniscal injury in such patients in routine clinical practice., Level of Evidence: Retrospective comparative study, level III.

Introduction: Anatomicaly preformed variable-angle locking plates are technologically mature and appear to be optimal for the fixation of distal radius fractures. However, there is still much argument about whether volar plating is equivalent to dorsal (buttressing) plating, especially in the management of intra-articular extension fractures. This biomechanical study was performed to determine, in a simple intra-articular fracture model, whether dorsal or volar plate constructs would be more stable., Materials and Methods: Six pairs of fresh frozen radii were examined with dual-energy absorptiometry (DXA) to determine their bone mineral density (BMD). An AO type 23 C2.1 fracture was created. Volar fixation was with a 2.4mm Variable-Angle LCP Two-Column Volar Distal Radius Plate; dorsal fixation was with two orthogonal 2.4 mm Variable-Angle LCP Dorsal Distal Radius Plates (both devices: Synthes, Oberdorf, Switzerland). Biomechanical testing used a proven protocol involving static tests of stiffness, and a cyclic test to obtain range of motion (ROM), maximum deformation, and subsidence data., Results: None of the constructs failed during biomechanical testing. The two groups (volar and dorsal plating, respectively) did not differ significantly in terms of initial (pre-cyclic-testing) and final (post-cyclic-testing) stiffness. Equally, there was no significant difference between the subsidence values in the two groups. The post-cyclic-testing ROM was significantly greater in the dorsal-plate group as compared with the volar-plate group. The volar constructs showed a significant decrease in the ROM between pre- and post-cyclic testing., Conclusion: Biomechanically, volar plating with a modern variable-angle locking plate is equivalent to dorsal plating with two modern variable-angle locking plates., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Adolescent tibial tubercle fractures are uncommon, complex, high-energy injuries. The use of lateral radiographs in isolation to diagnose and treat these injuries is the standard of practice. However, with a single 2-dimensional (2D) view, there may be a risk that the degree of injury can be underestimated. This study was performed to report on the outcomes of tibial tubercle fractures operatively treated, determine the utility of a single lateral x-ray to accurately document injury severity and pattern, delineate the role of advanced imaging and intraoperative arthroscopy/arthrotomy in injury treatment, and propose a new classification system of tibial tubercle fractures that accounts for the complex 3D nature of proximal tibial physeal closure, and recognizes the importance of intra-articular extension, providing guidance for intervention., Methods: A retrospective review of operatively treated tibial tubercle fractures at our institution from 2003 to 2010 was performed. Child age, weight, mechanism of injury, Ogden classification (x-ray), advanced imaging results [computed tomography (CT)/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)] including intra-articular fracture patterns, surgical techniques, intraoperative articular findings, and postoperative complications were collected. In addition, we classified all of our patients into a new classification system (type A--tubercle youth, type B--physeal, type C--intra-articular, type D--tubercle teen) based on a combination of plain radiograph (anteroposterior and lateral), advanced imaging (CT/MRI), and intraoperative arthrotomy/arthroscopy findings., Results: We found 41 tibial tubercle fractures in 40 children (all of whom were male) with a mean age of 15.0 ± 1.1 years, and mean weight of 80.3 ± 23.4 kg. Injuries mostly occurred during jumping activities. At initial presentation, compartment syndrome or vascular compromise was seen in nearly 10% of patients, all of whom had type B--physeal injuries under our new classification system. Fifty percent of injuries were underestimated and/or not appreciated by lateral x-ray alone. In patients with intra-articular involvement, consistent 3D fracture patterns were seen on CT including anterior fragments (sagittal plane), lateral fragments (coronal plane), and anterolateral fragments (axial plane). Our new 4 part classification system was able to classify all fractures: type A (2 patients, mean age, 12.7 ± 0.2 y), type B (13 patients, mean age, 14.8 ± 0.7 y), type C (22 patients, mean age, 15.3 ± 1.1 y), and type D (2 patients, mean age, 15.5 ± 0.1 y). All fractures achieved radiographic union with 2 patients (type A--tubercle youth and type B--physeal) requiring additional procedures due to premature physeal closure., Conclusions: Tibial tubercle fractures represent high-energy injuries with potentially devastating complications such as compartment syndrome and/or vascular compromise. Intra-articular involvement is often missed with the use of plain x-ray and drastically underestimates injury severity. The use of preoperative CT scan or MRI should be utilized as adjunct to plain lateral radiograph. If intra-articular involvement is recognized preoperatively, arthroscopy or open arthrotomy should be utilized at the time of surgery. Our new classification system is rooted in the development of the proximal tibia, accounts for intra-articular involvement, and provides guidance for treatment., Level of Evidence: Level III--diagnostic study.

Objective: Obesity and joint injury are primary risk factors for osteoarthritis (OA) that involve potential alterations in the biomechanical and inflammatory environments of the joint. Posttraumatic arthritis is a frequent long-term complication of intraarticular fractures. Obesity has been linked to primary OA and may potentially contribute to the development of posttraumatic arthritis by a variety of mechanisms. The objectives of this study were to determine whether diet-induced obesity influences the severity of posttraumatic arthritis in mice and to examine the interrelationships between joint degeneration and serum levels of the inflammatory cytokines and adipokines that are involved in this response., Methods: C57BL/6 mice were fed either normal chow (13% fat) or a high-fat diet (60% fat) starting at 4 weeks of age. At 16 weeks of age, half of the mice in each group were subjected to a closed intraarticular fracture of the left knee. At 8 weeks postfracture, knee OA was assessed by cartilage and synovium histology in addition to bone morphology. Serum cytokine concentrations were determined with multiplex assays., Results: Fractured knee joints of mice receiving a high-fat diet showed significantly increased OA degeneration compared with nonfractured contralateral control knees, while fractured knee joints of mice receiving a low-fat diet did not demonstrate significant differences from nonfractured contralateral control knees. A high-fat diet increased serum concentrations of interleukin-12p70 (IL-12p70), IL-6, and keratinocyte-derived chemokine while decreasing adiponectin concentrations. Joint injury also increased IL-12p70 concentrations in mice receiving a high-fat diet. Systemic levels of adiponectin were inversely correlated with synovial inflammation in control limbs., Conclusion: Diet-induced obesity significantly increased the severity of OA following intraarticular fracture. Obesity and joint injury together can alter systemic levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-12p70., (Copyright © 2012 by the American College of Rheumatology.)