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Background: Abdominal compartment syndrome has been shown to be a highly morbid condition among patients admitted to the intensive care unit. The present study sought to characterize trends as well as clinical and financial outcomes of patients with abdominal compartment syndrome., Methods: The 2010 to 2020 National Inpatient Sample was used to identify adults (≥18 years) admitted to the intensive care unit. Standard mean differences were obtained to demonstrate effect size with >0.1 denoting significance. Hospitals were divided into tertiles based on annual institutional intensive care unit admissions. Multivariable regression models were used to evaluate the association of abdominal compartment syndrome on outcomes. The primary endpoint was in-hospital mortality, while complications, costs, and length of stay were secondarily considered., Results: Of 11,804,585 patients, 19,644 (0.17%) developed abdominal compartment syndrome. Over the study period, the incidence of abdominal compartment syndrome (2010-0.19%, 2020-0.20%, P < .001) remained similar. Those with abdominal compartment syndrome were more commonly admitted for gastrointestinal (22.8% vs 8.4%) and cardiovascular (22.6% vs 14.9%) etiologies and were more frequently managed at urban teaching hospitals (77.7% vs 65.1%) as well as high-volume intensive care units (85.2% vs 79.1%) (all standard mean differences >0.1). After adjustment, abdominal compartment syndrome was associated with higher odds of mortality (adjusted odds ratio: 3.84, 95% confidence interval: 3.57-4.13, reference: non-abdominal compartment syndrome). Incremental length of stay (β: +5.0 days, 95% confidence interval: 4.2-5.8) and costs (β: $49.3K, 95% confidence interval: 45.3-53.4) were significantly higher in abdominal compartment syndrome compared to non-abdominal compartment syndrome., Conclusion: Abdominal compartment syndrome, while an uncommon occurrence among intensive care unit patients, remains highly morbid with significant resource burden. Further work exploring factors to mitigate its clinical and financial burden is needed., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) might be increased in cases with intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH). However, despite animal experimentation and physiological studies on humans in favor of this hypothesis, there is no definitive clinical data that IAH is associated with VAP. We therefore aimed to study whether IAH is a risk factor for increased incidence of VAP in critical care patients. This 1-center prospective observational cohort study was conducted in the intensive care unit of the University Hospital of Larissa, Greece, during 2013 to 2015. Consecutive patients were recruited if they presented risk factors for IAH at admission and were evaluated systematically for IAH and VAP for a 28-day period., Results: Forty-five (36.6%) of 123 patients presented IAH and 45 (36.6%) presented VAP; 24 patients presented VAP following IAH. Cox regression analysis showed that VAP was independently associated with IAH (1.06 [1.01-1.11]; P = .053), while there was an indication for an independent association between VAP and abdominal surgery (1.62 [0.87-3.03]; P = .11] and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (1.79 [0.96-3.37]; P = .06)., Conclusions: Intra-abdominal hypertension is an independent risk factor for increased VAP incidence in critically ill patients who present risk factors for IAH at admission to the ICU.

Purpose: Gastrointestinal dysfunction and failure (GID and GIF) in critically ill patients are a common, relevant, and underestimated complications in ICU patients. The aims of this study were (1) to determine plasmatic levels of citrulline, glutamine, and arginine as markers of GID/GIF in critically ill patients with or without GID/GIF with or without multiple organ failure (MOF) and (2) to assess the role of intra-abdominal hypertension in these patient groups., Materials and Methods: This is a 1-year, monocentric (Italian hospital), prospective observational study. Inclusion criteria were adult patients with GID/GIF, with or without MOF. The GIF score was daily evaluated in 39 critically ill patients. Amino acids were measured at the time of GID or GIF., Results: We enrolled 39 patients. Nine patients developed GID and 7 GIF; 6 of patients with GID/GIF developed MOF. Citrulline was lower ( P < .001) in patients with GID/GIF (11.3 [4.4] µmol/L), compared to patients without GID/GIF (22.4 [6.8] µmol/L); likewise, glutamine was lower in patients with GID/GIF, whereas arginine was nonstatistically different between the 2 groups. Intra-abdominal pressure was higher in patients affected by MOF (13.0 [2.2] mm Hg) than in patients with GIF/GID without MOF (9.6 [2.6] mm Hg) and compared to patients without GID/GIF (7.2 [2.1] mm Hg)., Conclusions: Both GID and GIF in critically ill patients are associated with low levels of citrulline and glutamine, which could be considered as markers of small bowel dysfunction. The higher the GIF score, the lower the citrulline levels. Patients affected by MOF had higher levels of intra-abdominal pressure.

Objectives: Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is a serious complication after abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repair. The aim was to investigate outcome among subgroups and factors associated with outcome, with emphasis on the duration of intra-abdominal hypertension before treatment., Methods: Since 2008, ACS and decompressive laparotomy (DL) after AAA repair are registered prospectively in the Swedish vascular registry (Swedvasc). Registry data and case records were reviewed. Subgroups were defined by main pathophysiological finding at DL, timing of DL after AAA repair, and treatment modality., Results: During 2008-2015, 120 of 8765 patients undergoing surgery for infrarenal AAA developed post-operative ACS (1.4%). Eighty-three followed ruptured AAA (rAAA); 45 open surgical repairs (OSR) and 38 endovascular (EVAR), and thirty-seven after intact AAA (iAAA); 30 OSR and seven EVAR. The main pathophysiological findings at DL were bowel ischaemia in 27 (23.3%), post-operative bleeding in 34 (29.3%), and general oedema in 55 (47.4%). DL was performed <24 hours after AAA repair in 56 (48.7%), 24-48 hours in 30 (26.1%), and >48 hours in 29 patients (25.2%). The overall 90 day mortality was 50.0%, neither different depending on main pathophysiological finding, nor on the timing of DL. In multivariable regression analysis, age was a predictor of mortality (p = .017), while duration of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) prior to DL predicted the need for renal replacement therapy (RRT) (p = .033). DL was performed earlier after EVAR compared with OSR in rAAA (p < .001)., Conclusions: Mortality in ACS was high, irrespective of the main pathophysiological finding and timing of DL. The duration of IAH prior to DL predicted the need for RRT. DL was performed earlier after EVAR than after OSR for rAAA, underlining the importance of monitoring IAP after EVAR for rAAA., (Copyright © 2019 European Society for Vascular Surgery. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To the best of our knowledge, in the literature, there is no data regarding clinical utility of the abdominal perfusion pressure (APP) in critically ill children. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the clinical utility of APP in predicting of survival in critically ill children with IAH., Design: A prospective cohort study of patients between 1 month to 18 years who had risk for intra-abdominal hypertension from June 2013 to January 2014., Setting: Pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) at a tertiary university hospital., Patients: Thirty-five (16 female) PICU patients who had risk for the development of IAH were included. Serial intraabdominal pressure (IAP) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) measurements were performed. Abdominal perfusion pressure was calculated using the formula (MAP-IAP)., Measurements and Main Results: Overall mortality rate was 49% (n = 17). The mortality rate in patients with IAP mean ≥10 mmHg (n = 27, 77%) was 55% (n = 15), while 53% (n = 16) in patients with IAP max ≥10 mmHg (n = 30, 86%) and 47% (n = 7) in patients with IAP min ≥ 10 mmHg (n = 15, 43%). Overall mean APP was 58 ± 20 mmHg. Logistic regression analysis revealed that decrease in minAPP was associated with increased risk for mortality (Odds ratio for each 1 mmHg decrease in APP was 1.052 [CI 95%, 1.006-1.100], p < 0.05). ROC curve analysis revealed that, in predicting mortality, area under curve for minAPP was 0.765. The optimal cut-off point for APP was obtained as 53 mmHg with the 77.8% sensitivity and 70.6% specificity using the IU method., Conclusions: Our findings showed that APP seems to be a useful tool in predicting mortality. Interventions to improve APP may be associated with better outcomes in critically ill PICU patients., Level of Evidence: Level II., Type of Study: Diagnostic., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Our study aims to emphasize the novelty of female rats in regard to their hemodynamic changes in response to abdominal compartment syndrome. A group of 64 rats was randomly divided into 4 subgroups for each gender. Except for the control, intra-abdominal pressure was increased to 10, 20, 30 mmHg. Survival time, mean arterial pressure, pH and lactate were determined at different time intervals., Results: As IAP was 20 mmHg, a statistically difference was seen between the male group and the female group starting from 15 min (126 ± 9.7 mmHg, 124 ± 14.7 mmHg respectively, p < 0.02) and lasting 2 h. At 30 mmHg, a statistically difference was seen between 30 to 60 min (p < 0.05). Only group 2 presented results with statistical power both at 30 and at 60 min concerning pH (p = 0.003, p < 0.001 respectively). In the lactate measurements at IAP of 10 mmHg, at 60 min male lactate level was 3.93 ± 1.13 and 2.25 ± 0.33 in female rats (p = 0.034). Female rats that were subjected to IAP of 20 mmHg and 30 mmHg had significantly better survival than male rats that were subjected to the same pressure (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). We concluded that female rats have better preserved their hemodynamic and metabolic parameters during ACS than male rats.

Background/aim: Intraabdominal hypertension (IAH) occurs frequently in patients with acute pancreatitis and adds to their morbidity and mortality. The main aim of the study was to identify the determination of the predictive factors connected to IAH that influence the evolution of acute pancreatitis., Materials and Methods: The prospective cohort study was conducted on 100 patients who had acute pancreatitis. According to obtained intraabdominal pressure (IAP) values, the patients were divided into two groups: one group (n = 40) with normal IAP values and the other (IAH group, n = 60) with increased IAP values. Deceased patients were specially analyzed within the IAH group in order to determine mortality predictors., Results: Statistical significance of IAP (P = 0.048), lactates (P = 0.048), peak pressure (P = 0.043), abdominal perfusion pressure (P = 0.05), and mean arterial pressure (P = 0.041) was greater for deceased than for surviving patients in the IAH group. High mortality appears for patients younger than 65 years old, with lactate level higher than 3.22 mmol/L and filtration gradient (GF) lower than 67 mmHg., Conclusion: Age, lactates, GF, and APACHE II score are determined as mortality predictors for patients suffering from acute pancreatitis who developed IAH. The mortality rate is higher when the level of GF is decreasing and the level of lactate increasing.

Objectives: To identify the prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes of intra-abdominal hypertension in a mixed multicenter ICU population., Design: Prospective observational study., Setting: Fifteen ICUs worldwide., Patients: Consecutive adult ICU patients with a bladder catheter., Interventions: None., Measurements and Main Results: Four hundred ninety-one patients were included. Intra-abdominal pressure was measured a minimum of every 8 hours. Subjects with a mean intra-abdominal pressure equal to or greater than 12 mm Hg were defined as having intra-abdominal hypertension. Intra-abdominal hypertension was present in 34.0% of the patients on the day of ICU admission (159/467) and in 48.9% of the patients (240/491) during the observation period. The severity of intra-abdominal hypertension was as follows: grade I, 47.5%; grade II, 36.6%; grade III, 11.7%; and grade IV, 4.2%. The severity of intra-abdominal hypertension during the first 2 weeks of the ICU stay was identified as an independent predictor of 28- and 90-day mortality, whereas the presence of intra-abdominal hypertension on the day of ICU admission did not predict mortality. Body mass index, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score greater than or equal to 18, presence of abdominal distension, absence of bowel sounds, and positive end-expiratory pressure greater than or equal to 7 cm H2O were independently associated with the development of intra-abdominal hypertension at any time during the observation period. In subjects without intra-abdominal hypertension on day 1, body mass index combined with daily positive fluid balance and positive end-expiratory pressure greater than or equal to 7 cm H2O (as documented on the day before intra-abdominal hypertension occurred) were associated with the development of intra-abdominal hypertension during the first week in the ICU., Conclusions: In our mixed ICU patient cohort, intra-abdominal hypertension occurred in almost half of all subjects and was twice as prevalent in mechanically ventilated patients as in spontaneously breathing patients. Presence and severity of intra-abdominal hypertension during the observation period significantly and independently increased 28- and 90-day mortality. Five admission day variables were independently associated with the presence or development of intra-abdominal hypertension. Positive fluid balance was associated with the development of intra-abdominal hypertension after day 1.

Causes of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are varied and can result from both medical and surgical diseases. Early recognition of ACS and prompt surgical treatment has been shown to improve mortality. We hypothesize that earlier recognition of ACS and earlier involvement by surgical specialists may improve mortality. A retrospective review between July 2010 and July 2015 was performed of adult patients who underwent decompressive laparotomy for ACS. Patients were divided into surgical and medical intensive care units (SICU and MICU) arms. Twenty patients were included (MICU = 12; SICU = 8) without significant difference between the groups. Median time from admission to suspicion for MICU patients was 60 hours versus 13 hours for SICU patients ( P = 0.013). Time from suspicion to surgical consult was 60 minutes versus 0 minutes, respectively ( P = 0.003), however, time from surgical consult to intervention was not different. Mortality rate in the MICU was 83 per cent versus 12.5 per cent in the SICU ( P = 0.005). Patients in the SICU who developed ACS were more quickly diagnosed than those in the MICU. These patients had a shorter time from suspicion of ACS to surgical consultation and eventual surgical intervention, and was associated with improved survival. A multidisciplinary approach, including early surgical consultation, for patients in whom there is a suspicion of ACS may contribute to improved mortality.

Background: Open abdomen (OA) in which the abdomen is closed with temporary abdominal closure methods is the most effective in patients who develop severe abdominal sepsis or abdominal compartment syndrome. Major techniques used are Vacuum-Assisted Closure Method (VACM) and non-vacuum assisted closure method (NVACM). In the present study, the effects of different abdominal closure methods on morbidity and mortality were evaluated., Methods: In the study, the temporary abdominal closure methods of the patients with OA during 2013-2016 were studied retrospectively. OA etiopathologies, mortality prediction scores, final abdominal closure periods and methods, hospitalization periods, complications (enteroatmospheric fistula, mesh infection, and incisional hernia), and mortality rates of patients who underwent VACM and NVACM were determined and compared., Results: The present study included 123 patients who underwent VACM (n=65) and NVACM (n=58). There was no difference between the groups in terms of age, gender, and etiopathogenesis (p>0.05). The mean APACHE 4 and Multiple Organ Dysfunction Score (MODS) scores in the VACM/NVACM groups in treatment period were 47/63 and 11/14, respectively (p<0.05). The mean intensive care and hospitalization periods in the VACM/NVACM groups were 11/16 (days) and 22/28 (days), respectively (p<0.05). The collection and abscess development rates in the VACM and NVACM groups were 46.2% and 77.6%, respectively (p<0.05). The rate of enteroatmospheric fistula (EAF) development in the VACM and NVACM groups were 15.4% and 56.9%, respectively (p<0.05). The mean abdominal closure times in the VACM and NVACM groups were 13 and 17 days, respectively (p<0.05). Mortality rate in the VACM and NVACM groups were 18% (n=18) and 55% (n=32), respectively (p<0.05)., Conclusion: In patients with OA, the temporary abdominal closure technique VACM has lower complication and mortality rates and shorter hospitalization period than other methods. Therefore, it is an effective and safe method for the treatment of OA.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of intra-abdominal hypertension in mixed medical-surgical critically ill patients using modern definitions and measurement techniques. Secondarily to determine variables associated with intra-abdominal hypertension and ICU mortality., Design: A prospective observational study., Setting: Single institution trauma, medical and surgical ICU in Canada., Patients: Consecutive adult patients admitted to the ICU (n = 285)., Intervention: Intra-abdominal pressure measurements twice a day during admission to the ICU., Measurements and Main Results: In 285 patients who met inclusion criteria, 30% were diagnosed with intra-abdominal hypertension at admission and a further 15% developed intra-abdominal hypertension during admission. The prevalence of abdominal compartment syndrome was 3%. Obesity, sepsis, mechanical ventilation, and 24-hour fluid balance (> 3 L) were all independent predictors for intra-abdominal hypertension. Intra-abdominal hypertension occurred in 28% of nonventilated patients. Admission type (medical vs surgical vs trauma) was not a significant predictor of intra-abdominal hypertension. Overall ICU mortality was 20% and was significantly higher for patients with intra-abdominal hypertension (30%) compared with patients without intra-abdominal hypertension (11%). Intra-abdominal hypertension of any grade was an independent predictor of mortality (odds ratio, 3.33; 95% CI, 1.46-7.57)., Conclusions: Intra-abdominal hypertension is common in both surgical and nonsurgical patients in the intensive care setting and was found to be independently associated with mortality. Despite prior reports to the contrary, intra-abdominal hypertension develops in nonventilated patients and in patients who do not have intra-abdominal hypertension at admission. Intra-abdominal pressure monitoring is inexpensive, provides valuable clinical information, and there may be a role for its routine measurement in the ICU. Future work should evaluate the impact of early interventions for patients with intra-abdominal hypertension.

Background: Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) has a reported incidence of 9%-14% among trauma patients. However, in patients with similar hemodynamic changes, the incidence of ACS remains unclear. Our aim was to determine the incidence of ACS among patients undergoing endovascular aortic repair (EVAR) for ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (rAAAs) and to identify associated risk factors., Methods: A retrospective review was performed for consecutive patients who underwent EVAR for rAAA from March 2010 to November 2016 at our institution. The development of ACS was diagnosed based on a variety of factors, including bladder pressure, laboratory abnormalities, hemodynamic monitoring, and clinical evaluation. Previously validated risk factors for ACS development in trauma and EVAR patients (preoperative hypotension, aggressive fluid resuscitation, postoperative anemia, use of an aorto-uniiliac graft, and placement of an aortic occlusive balloon) were analyzed. Association between patient characteristics and ACS development was analyzed using the Fisher's exact test., Results: During the study period, 25 patients had image-confirmed rAAA and underwent emergent EVAR. Mortality rate was 28% (n = 7), and ACS incidence was 12% (n = 3). Of the analyzed risk factors, hypotension on arrival (P = 0.037), transfusion of 3 or more units of packed red blood cells (P = 0.037), and postoperative anemia (P = 0.02) were all significantly associated with postoperative ACS development. In addition, having greater than 3 of the studied risk factors was associated with increased odds of developing ACS (P = 0.015), and having greater than 4 of the studied risk factors showed the strongest association with ACS development (P = 0.0017)., Conclusions: Overresuscitation should be avoided in patients with rAAA. In addition, patients who present with multiple risk factors for ACS should be monitored very closely with serial bladder pressures and may require decompression laparotomy immediately after EVAR., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is poorly identified in surgery for ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm and an early management is crucial. The aim of this study was to validate how many risk factors were needed to predict ACS. Secondary objectives were to assess its prevalence and the 30-day mortality. Methods All patients operated for ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm during 5 years were included. An independent committee performed a retrospective diagnosis of ACS. Eight criteria were selected from the literature, and corresponded to pre- and intraoperative period: anemia (hemoglobin lower than 10 g/dL), prolonged shock (systolic blood pressure <90 mmHg more than 18 min), preoperative cardiac arrest, obesity (body mass index > 30), massive fluid resuscitation (≥3500 mL per hour for at least 1 h) and transfusions (>10 units packed blood red cell since the beginning of the treatment), severe hypothermia (≤33℃), acidosis (pH < 7.2). Sensitivity and specificity were assessed for each number of criteria. Results Eight patients were ACS+ and 28 ACS-, with three criteria for ACS+ and 1.5 for ACS- ( p = 0.002). Three criteria among the eight selected criteria have the best cutoff for sensitivity and specificity (75% and 82%) with a positive predictive value of 54% and a negative predictive value of 92%. The prevalence of ACS was 17%. The 30-day mortality in ACS+ tended to be higher than in ACS- ( p = 0.108). Conclusion The present results suggest that patients with an ACS seemed to have higher mortality and the threshold of three factors among eight specific factors is enough to predict this.

Background: Endovascular repair of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (RAAAs) has been previously reported to reduce mortality rates compared to open repair. Newer stent-grafts may provide even better results with applicability in a larger number of patients. We present our experience with the Medtronic Endurant endograft over a three-year period., Methods: Consecutive cases of RAAAs which have been managed with the Endurant stent-graft were recruited from three centers and were analyzed retrospectively. Twenty-three patients (22 males; mean age 74±9 years) were treated between June 2010 and May 2013., Results: The technical success rate was 100% with no intraoperative endoleaks. Thirty-day mortality was 13% (3/23 patients). Two patients required prolonged hospitalization and mechanical ventilation. For the remaining 18 patients, the average hospitalization length was 5.5 days. Two major risk factors were found to be significantly associated with increased mortality: low systolic blood pressure on arrival at the hospital (63±6 vs. 99±22; P=0.01), and post-operative development of an abdominal compartment syndrome (Relative Risk - RR=13.3, 95% confidence interval - CI: 1.6-106; P=0.03). Other important clinical variables which did not significantly affect mortality included age (mean age 83±9 years in those who died vs. 73±9 years in the survivors; P=0.09), type of graft (bifurcated vs. aorto-uni-iliac; RR=2.2, 95% CI: 0.3-15; P=0.4), aneurysm diameter (11±4 cm vs. 9±2 cm; P=0.28), and proximal neck angulation (68±14 vs. 57±26 degrees; P=0.5). A proximal neck angulation >75° was not associated with a higher mortality rate (RR=1.33, 95% CI: 0.22-7.8; P=1)., Conclusions: Endovascular repair of RAAAs resulted in high technical success and low mortality rates in this series of patients treated with the Endurant stent graft. Hypotension on arrival to the hospital and development of an abdominal compartment syndrome were predictive of increased risk of death. Patient age, aneurysm diameter and graft configuration did not negatively impact survival. Non-compliance with the device instructions for use (IFU) did not adversely affect results in this small patient series. Larger studies are needed to confirm our results.

Background/aim: Intraabdominal hypertension (IAH) is a common clinical finding in patients with acute pancreatitis and is associated with poor prognosis. This study aimed to determine the impact of intraabdominal pressure (IAP) on the mortality rate in patients with acute pancreatitis in an intensive care unit., Materials and Methods: A total of 50 patients with acute pancreatitis were included in this prospective cohort study. Based on the obtained values of IAP, the patients were divided into two groups: those with normal IAP (n = 14) and increased IAP (n = 36). Mean values of IAP were compared with examined variables., Results: The mortality rate of the study group was 40%. Comparing the IAP and treatment outcomes, it was proved that there were statistically highly significant differences (P = 0.012). Increasing the value of IAP increased the mortality rate. Deceased patients in the IAH group had greater statistical significance of APACHE II score (P = 0.016), abdominal perfusion pressure (P = 0.048), lactate (P = 0.049), hematocrit (P = 0.039), Ranson's criteria on admission (P = 0.017), Ranson's criteria after 48 h (P = 0.010), Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score (P = 0.014), and body mass index (P = 0.012) compared to the surviving patients., Conclusion: IAP has an impact on the increase of mortality rates in patients with acute pancreatitis.

To explore effective treatment of large abdominal malignancies in children complicated with abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS).Six children with large abdominal malignancies complicated with ACS were admitted to our department from January 2013 to January 2016, and the changes in their breathing, heart rate, oxygen saturation, abdominal circumference, bladder pressure, and urine output, as well as the treatment measures and outcomes, were retrospectively analyzed.The 6 children included 1 child with bilateral nephroblastoma, 1 child with abdominal alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, 1 child with right ovarian malignant teratoma complicated with abdominal glioma, 1 child with abdominal malignant teratoma, 1 child with right nephroblastoma, and 1 child with left adrenal gland neuroblastoma. All patients were treated in a timely manner. The first 4 children underwent abdominal cavity decompression through surgical resection of the tumor, and the ACS was successfully cured allowing for follow-up care, whereas the last 2 patients failed to receive emergency surgery and eventually died due to the gradual aggravation of ACS.Decompression through surgical resection of the tumor is the only effective measure for treating large abdominal malignancies in children complicated with ACS.

Background: Temporary abdominal closure (TAC) may be performed for cirrhotic patients undergoing emergent laparotomy. The effects of cirrhosis on physiologic parameters, resuscitation requirements, and outcomes following TAC are unknown. We hypothesized that cirrhotic TAC patients would have different resuscitation requirements and worse outcomes than noncirrhotic patients., Methods: We performed a 3-year retrospective cohort analysis of 231 patients managed with TAC following emergent laparotomy for sepsis, trauma, or abdominal compartment syndrome. All patients were initially managed with negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) TAC with intention for planned relaparotomy and sequential abdominal closure attempts at 24- to 48-h intervals., Results: At presentation, cirrhotic patients had higher incidence of acidosis (33% versus 17%) and coagulopathy (87% versus 54%) than noncirrhotic patients. Forty-eight hours after presentation, cirrhotic patients had a persistently higher incidence of coagulopathy (77% versus 44%) despite receiving more fresh frozen plasma (10.8 units versus 4.4 units). Cirrhotic patients had higher NPWT output (4427 mL versus 2375 mL) and developed higher vasopressor infusion rates (57% versus 29%). Cirrhotic patients had fewer intensive care unit-free days (2.3 versus 7.6 days) and higher rates of multiple organ failure (64% versus 34%), in-hospital mortality (67% versus 21%), and long-term mortality (80% versus 34%) than noncirrhotic patients., Conclusions: Cirrhotic patients managed with TAC are susceptible to early acidosis, persistent coagulopathy, large NPWT fluid losses, prolonged vasopressor requirements, multiple organ failure, and early mortality. Future research should seek to determine whether TAC provides an advantage over primary fascial closure for cirrhotic patients undergoing emergency laparotomy., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Subset analyses from small case series suggest patients requiring laparotomy during endovascular repair of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (REVAR) have worse survival than those undergoing REVAR without laparotomy. Most concomitant laparotomies are performed for abdominal compartment syndrome. This study used data from the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program to determine whether the need for laparotomy during REVAR is associated with increased mortality., Methods: Data were obtained from the 2005 to 2013 National Surgical Quality Improvement Program participant user files based on Current Procedural Terminology (American Medical Association, Chicago, Ill) and International Classification of Diseases-9 Edition coding. Patient and procedure-related characteristics and 30-day postoperative outcomes were compared using Pearson χ 2 tests for categoric variables and Wilcoxon rank sum tests for continuous variables. A backward-stepwise multivariable logistic regression model was used to identify patient- and procedure-related factors associated with increased death after REVAR., Results: We identified 1241 patients who underwent REVAR, and 91 (7.3%) required concomitant laparotomy. The 30-day mortality was 60% in the laparotomy group and 21% in the standard REVAR group (P < .001). The major complication rate was also higher in the laparotomy group (88% vs 63%; P < .001). Multivariable analysis showed laparotomy was strongly associated with 30-day mortality (odds ratio, 5.91; 95% confidence interval, 3.62-9.62; P < .001)., Conclusions: Laparotomy during REVAR is a commonly used technique for the management of elevated intra-abdominal pressure and abdominal compartment syndrome development. The results of this study strongly confirm findings from smaller studies that the need for laparotomy during REVAR is associated with significantly worse 30-day survival., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Contribution of decompressive laparotomy within the framework of the complex therapeutic algorithm of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is cited with an extremely heterogeneous percentage in terms of survival. The purpose of this study was to present new data regarding contribution of each therapeutic step toward decreasing the mortality of this syndrome.This is a longitudinal prospective study including 134 patients with risk factors for ACS. The intra-abdominal pressure was measured every hour indirectly based on transvesical approach and the appearance of organ dysfunction. Specific therapy for ACS was based on the 2013 World Society of Abdominal Compartment Syndrome guidelines, which include laparotomy decompression. Management of the temporarily open abdomen included an assisted vacuum wound therapy.Of 134 patients, 66 developed ACS. The average intra-abdominal pressure significantly decreased after therapy and decompression surgery. The overall rate of mortality was 27.3% with statistical significance in necrotizing infected pancreatitis. Surgical decompression performed within the first 24 hours after the onset of ACS had a protective role against mortality (odds ratio <1). The average time after which laparotomy decompression was performed was 16.23 hours. The complications occurred during TAC were 2 wound suppurations and 1 intestinal obstruction. Wound suppurations evolved favorably by using vacuum wound-assisted therapy associated with the general treatment, whereas for occlusion, resurgery was performed after which adhesions dissolved. The final closure of the abdomen was performed at a mean of 11.7 days (min. = 9, max. = 14). The closure type was primary suture of the musculoaponeurotic edges in 4 cases, and the use of dual mesh in the other 11 cases.The highest mortality rate in the study group was registered in patients with necrotizing pancreatitis and the lowest in trauma group. Surgical decompression within the framework of the complex algorithm treatment of ACS contributed to the reduction of mortality by 8.7%. It is extremely important that the elapsed time since the initiation of the ACS until the surgical decompression is minimal (under 24 hours)., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Background: Open abdomen treatment (OAT) is a significant burden for patients and is associated with considerable mortality. The primary aim of this study was to report survival and cause of mortality after OAT. Secondary aims were to evaluate length of stay (LOS) in intensive care unit (ICU) and in hospital, time to abdominal closure and major complications., Methods: Retrospective review of prospectively registered patients undergoing OAT between October 2006 and June 2014 at Trondheim University Hospital, Norway., Results: The 118 patients with OAT had a median age of 63 (20-88) years. OAT indications were abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) (n = 53), prophylactic (n = 29), abdominal contamination/second look laparotomy (n = 22), necrotizing fasciitis (n = 7), hemorrhage packing (n = 4) and full-thickness wound dehiscence (n = 3). Eight percent were trauma patients. Vacuum-assisted wound closure (VAWC) with mesh-mediated traction (VAWCM) was used in 92 (78 %) patients, the remaining 26 (22 %) had VAWC only. Per-protocol primary fascial closure rate was 84 %. Median time to abdominal closure was 12 days (1-143). LOS in the ICU was 15 (1-89), and in hospital 29 (1-246) days. Eighty-one (68 %) patients survived the hospital stay. Renal failure requiring renal replacement therapy (RRT) (OR 3.9, 95 % CI 1.37-11.11), ACS (OR 3.1, 95 % CI 1.19-8.29) and advanced age (OR 1.045, 95 % CI 1.004-1.088) were independent predictors of mortality in multivariate analysis. The nine patients with an entero-atmospheric fistula (EAF) survived., Conclusion: Two-thirds of the patients treated with OAT survived. Renal failure with RRT, ACS and advanced age were predictors of mortality, whereas EAF was not associated with increased mortality.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the incidence and prognostic factors of mortality in intra-abdominal hypertension that developed during admission in the surgical intensive care units in Thailand., Material and Method: This was a prospective observational study in nine university-based surgical intensive care units in Thailand. (THAI-SICU) The suspected patients who had the intra-abdominal pressure more than 12 mmHg were defined as intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH). The patients were followed until discharge., Results: Among 4,652 cases, a total of 71 cases (1.5%) developed IAH. The average age was 53.05+20.26 years. The median APACHE II score was 13 (9-15). Eighteen patients received surgical decompression as treatment. Metabolic acidosis (pH <7.2) and abdominal aortic surgery were the significant factors for mortality in intra-abdominal hypertension patients., Conclusion: The incidence of intra-abdominal hypertension in the critical surgical care units was low in this cohort. Intraabdominal hypertension in patients who previously received abdominal aortic surgery and who had concomitant acidosis was the independent risk factor of mortality.

Background: Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) in severely injured patients is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Many efforts have been made to improve outcome of patients with ACS. A treatment algorithm for ACS patients was introduced on January 1, 2005 by the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and mortality rate of ACS among severely injured patients before and after January 1, 2005 using a systematic literature review., Method: Databases of Embase, Medline (OvidSP), Web of Science, CINAHL, CENTRAL, PubMed publisher, and Google Scholar were searched for terms related to severely injured patients and ACS. Original studies reporting ACS in trauma patients were considered eligible. Data on study design, population, definitions, prevalence, and mortality rates were extracted. Pooled prevalence and mortality of ACS among severely injured patients were calculated for both time periods using inversed variance weighting assuming a random effects model. Tests for heterogeneity were applied., Results: A total of 80 publications were included. Prevalence of studies that finished enrolling patients before January 1, 2005 ranged from 0.5% to 36.4% and 0.0% to 28.0% in studies after that date. For severely injured patients admitted to the ICU, this range was 0.5% to 1.3% before 2005 and 0% in one publication in the second time period. For patients with visceral injuries, ACS prevalence ranged 1.0% to 20.0%; one study in the second time period reported 11.1%. The prevalence among severely injured patients who underwent trauma laparotomy ranged from 0.9% to 36.4% in the first time period. Two studies after January 1, 2005 reported ACS prevalence of 2.3% and 13.2%, respectively. The mortality rate in both time periods ranged between 0.0% and 100.0%., Conclusion: The overall prevalence of ACS ranged from 0.0% to 36.4%. Future studies are needed to measure the effect of improved trauma care and effectiveness of the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome Consensus Statements., Level of Evidence: Systematic review/meta-analysis, level III.

Purpose: To assess the incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU)., Methods: Prospective cohort study from January 2011 to January 2013. All children consecutively admitted to the PICU, staying more than 24 hours and requiring bladder catheterization, were included in the study. On admission, demographic data and risk factors for IAH were studied. The intra-abdominal pressure was measured every 6 hours through a bladder catheter until discharge, death, or removal of the catheter., Results: Of the 175 patients, 22 (12.6%) had IAH and 7 (4%) had abdominal compartment syndrome during the intensive care unit (ICU) stay. The independent risk factors associated with IAH were the presence of abdominal distension (odds ratio [OR] 7.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.6-19.9; P < .0001) and a plateau pressure of more than 30 cm H2O (OR 6.42; 95% CI, 2.13-19.36; P = .01). The presence of IAH was associated with higher mortality (40.9% vs 15.6%; P = .01) and prolonged ICU stay (19.5 [3-97] vs 8 [1-104] days, OR 1.02; 95% CI, 1.00-1.04; P = .02). Thirty-three (18.8%) patients died in the ICU, and IAH was an independent risk factor for mortality (OR 6.98; 95% CI, 1.75-27.86; P = .006)., Conclusion: Intra-abdominal hypertension does occur in about 13% of the critically ill children, albeit less frequently than adult patients, probably related to a better compliance of the abdominal wall. The presence of abdominal distension and a plateau pressure of more than 30 cm H2O was found to be independent predictors of IAH. Children with IAH had higher mortality rate and more prolonged ICU stay., (© The Author(s) 2015.)

Background: The effect of decompressive laparotomy on outcomes in patients with abdominal compartment syndrome has been poorly investigated. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to describe the effect of decompressive laparotomy for abdominal compartment syndrome on organ function and outcomes., Methods: This was a prospective cohort study in adult patients who underwent decompressive laparotomy for abdominal compartment syndrome. The primary endpoints were 28-day and 1-year all-cause mortality. Changes in intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) and organ function, and laparotomy-related morbidity were secondary endpoints., Results: Thirty-three patients were included in the study (20 men). Twenty-seven patients were surgical admissions treated for abdominal conditions. The median (i.q.r.) Acute Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score was 26 (20-32). Median IAP was 23 (21-27) mmHg before decompressive laparotomy, decreasing to 12 (9-15), 13 (8-17), 12 (9-15) and 12 (9-14) mmHg after 2, 6, 24 and 72 h. Decompressive laparotomy significantly improved oxygenation and urinary output. Survivors showed improvement in organ function scores, but non-survivors did not. Fourteen complications related to the procedure developed in eight of the 33 patients. The abdomen could be closed primarily in 18 patients. The overall 28-day mortality rate was 36 per cent (12 of 33), which increased to 55 per cent (18 patients) at 1 year. Non-survivors were no different from survivors, except that they tended to be older and on mechanical ventilation., Conclusion: Decompressive laparotomy reduced IAP and had an immediate effect on organ function. It should be considered in patients with abdominal compartment syndrome., (© 2016 The Authors. BJS published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of BJS Society Ltd.)

Purpose of Review: This article reviews recent developments related to intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH)/abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) and clinical practice guidelines published in 2013., Recent Findings: IAH/ACS often develops because of the acute intestinal distress syndrome. Although the incidence of postinjury ACS is decreasing, IAH remains common and associated with significant morbidity and mortality among critically ill/injured patients. Many risk factors for IAH include those findings suggested to be indications for use of damage control surgery in trauma patients. Medical management strategies for IAH/ACS include sedation/analgesia, neuromuscular blocking and prokinetic agents, enteral decompression tubes, interventions that decrease fluid balance, and percutaneous catheter drainage. IAH/ACS may be prevented in patients undergoing laparotomy by leaving the abdomen open where appropriate. If ACS cannot be prevented with medical or surgical management strategies or treated with percutaneous catheter drainage, guidelines recommend urgent decompressive laparotomy. Use of negative pressure peritoneal therapy for temporary closure of the open abdomen may improve the systemic inflammatory response and patient-important outcomes., Summary: In the last 15 years, investigators have better clarified the pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, and appropriate prevention of IAH/ACS. Subsequent study should be aimed at understanding which treatments effectively lower intra-abdominal pressure and whether these treatments ultimately affect patient-important outcomes.

Introduction: Secondary abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) can occur in trauma patients without abdominal injuries. Surgical management of patients presenting with secondary ACS after isolated traumatic lower extremity vascular injury (LEVI) continues to evolve, and associated outcomes remain unknown., Methods: From January 2006 to September 2011, 191 adult trauma patients presented to the Ryder Trauma Center, an urban level I trauma center in Miami, Florida with traumatic LEVIs. Among them 10 (5.2 %) patients were diagnosed with secondary ACS. Variables collected included age, gender, mechanism of injury, and clinical status at presentation. Surgical data included vessel injury, technical aspects of repair, associated complications, and outcomes., Results: Mean age was 37.4 ± 18.0 years (range 16-66 years), and the majority of patients were males (8 patients, 80 %). There were 7 (70 %) penetrating injuries (5 gunshot wounds and 2 stab wounds), and 3 blunt injuries with mean Injury Severity Score (ISS) 21.9 ± 14.3 (range 9-50). Surgical management of LEVIs included ligation (4 patients, 40 %), primary repair (1 patient, 10 %), reverse saphenous vein graft (2 patients, 20 %), and PTFE interposition grafting (3 patients, 30 %). The overall mortality rate in this series was 60 %., Conclusions: The association between secondary ACS and lower extremity vascular injuries carries high morbidity and mortality rates. Further research efforts should focus at identifying parameters to accurately determine resuscitation goals, and therefore, prevent such a devastating condition.

Background: Burn patients are at high risk for secondary intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) due to capillary leak and large volume fluid resuscitation. Our objective was to examine the incidence the incidence of IAH and ACS and their relation to outcome in mechanically ventilated (MV) burn patients., Methods: This observational study included all MV burn patients admitted between April 2007 and December 2009. Various physiological parameters, intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) measurements and severity scoring indices were recorded on admission and/or each day in ICU. Transpulmonary thermodilution parameters were also obtained in 23 patients. The mean and maximum IAP during admission was calculated. The primary endpoint was ICU (burn unit) mortality., Results: Fifty-six patients were included. The average Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS II) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores were 43.4 (± 15.1) and 6.4 (± 3.4), respectively. The average total body surface area (TBSA) affected by burns was 24.9% (± 24.9), with 33 patients suffering inhalational injuries. Forty-four (78.6%) patients developed IAH and 16 (28.6%) suffered ACS. Patients with ACS had higher TBSAs burned (35.8 ± 30 vs. 20.6 ± 21.4%, P = 0.04) and higher cumulative fluid balances after 48 hours (13.6 ± 16L vs. 7.6 ± 4.1 L, P = 0.03). The TBSA burned correlated well with the mean IAP (R = 0.34, P = 0.01). Mortality was notably high (26.8%) and significantly higher in patients with IAH (34.1%, P = 0.014) and ACS (62.5%, P < 0.0001). Most patients received more fluids than calculated by the Parkland Consensus Formula while, interestingly, non-survivors received less. However, when patients with pure inhalation injury were excluded there were no differences. Non-surgical interventions (n = 24) were successful in removing body fluids and were related to a significant decrease in IAP, central venous pressure (CVP) and an improvement in oxygenation and urine output. Non-resolution of IAH was associated with a significantly worse outcome (P < 0.0001)., Conclusion: Based on our preliminary results we conclude that IAH and ACS have a relatively high incidence in MV burn patients compared to other groups of critically ill patients. The percentage of TBSA burned correlates with the mean IAP. The combination of high CLI, positive (daily and cumulative) fluid balance, high IAP, high EVLWI and low APP suggest a poor outcome. Non-surgical interventions appear to improve end-organ function. Non-resolution of IAH is related to a worse outcome.

Introduction: Quality improvement initiatives have focused primarily on preventing in-hospital complications. Patients developing complications are at a greater risk of mortality; however, factors associated with failure-to-rescue (death after major complication) in trauma patients remain undefined. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors associated with failure-to-rescue in patients undergoing trauma laparotomy., Methods: An -8-year, retrospective analysis of patients undergoing trauma laparotomy was performed. Patients who developed major in-hospital complications were included. Major complications were defined as respiratory, infectious, cardiac, renal, or development of compartment syndrome. Regression analysis was performed to identify independent factors associated with failure-to-rescue after we adjusted for demographics, mechanism of injury, abdominal abbreviated injury scale, initial vital signs, damage control laparotomy, and volume of crystalloids and blood products administered., Results: A total of 1,029 patients were reviewed, of which 21% (n = 217) patients who developed major complications were included. The mean age was 39 ± 18 years, 82% were male, 61% had blunt trauma, and median abdominal abbreviated injury scale was 25 [16-34, interquartile range]. Respiratory complications (n = 77) followed by infectious complications (n = 75) were the most common complications. The failure-to-rescue rate was 15.7% (n = 34/217). Age, blunt trauma, severe head injury, uninsured status, and blood products administered on the second day were independent predictor for failure-to-rescue., Conclusion: When major complications develop, age, uninsured status, severity of head injury, and prolonged resuscitation are associated independently with failure-to-rescue, whereas initial resuscitation, coagulopathy, and acidosis did not predict failure to rescue. Quality-of-care programs focus in patient level should be on improving the patient's insurance status, preventing secondary brain injury, and further development of resuscitation guidelines., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Children with massive ascites can develop abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS), which has been identified as an independent risk factor for mortality., Objectives: The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of volume-controlled percutaneous catheter drainage (PCD) for treating children with massive ascites and ACS., Methods: A retrospective descriptive study was conducted; Comprising 12patients with ACS with massive ascites treated with volume-controlled PCD in a pediatric intensive care unitof a university hospital in southern China from April 2011 to June 2013., Results: The etiology of ascites in these children included abdominal tumor (8/12), capillary leak after liver or kidney transplantation (2/12) and urine leakage (2/12). Intra-abdominal hypertension was closely associated with multiple organ dysfunction and high mortality. Digestive and pulmonary functions were the most frequently affected by ACS, while the cerebrum was the least involved. Treatment with ultrasound-guided PCD significantly decreased intra-abdominal pressure, abdominal circumference, and indices of organ dysfunction. PCD treatment also significantly improved glomerular filtration rate and PaO2/FiO2. Complications of PCD included abdominal infection (1/12) and electrolyte imbalance (4/12). The mortality rate of patients treated with PCD was 25%, which was lower than previous reports., Conclusions: Controlled peritoneal drainage is a minimally invasive and safe decompression method that is effective in patients with ACS, and should be considered in children with massive ascites.

Background: Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is a known complication of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm (rAAA) repair and can occur with either endovascular (EVAR) or open repair. We hypothesize that the underlying mechanism for the development of ACS may differ for patients treated with EVAR or open operation., Methods: All patients who presented with rAAA at a tertiary care medical center between January 2005 and December 2010 were included in the study. Demographic factors, type of repair (open vs EVAR), development of ACS, intraoperative and postoperative fluid requirements, estimated blood loss, length of stay, and morbidity and mortality were recorded. Student t-test and Fisher exact test were performed. A P value < .05 was considered significant., Results: Seventy-three patients, 62 men and 11 women with an average age of 70.5 years, were treated for rAAA. Forty-four (60%) underwent open repair; 29 (40%) had EVAR. Overall mortality was 42% (31 of 73), with mortality being 31% (9 of 29) in EVAR and 48% (21 of 44) in open repair. ACS developed in 21 patients (29%), more frequently in open repair than in EVAR (15 of 44 [34%] vs 6 of 29 [21%]; P = NS). Mortality was higher in patients who developed ACS compared with those without ACS (13 of 21 [62%] vs 17 of 52 [33%]; P = .022). This finding was especially pronounced in the EVAR group, in which mortality in patients with ACS was 83% (5 of 6) compared with 17% (4 of 23) without ACS (P = .005). Intraoperative fluid requirements were significantly higher in EVAR patients who developed ACS compared with those without ACS, including packed red blood cells (5600 mL vs 1100 mL; P < .0001), total blood products (9300 mL vs 1500 mL; P < .001), crystalloid (11,200 mL vs 4500 mL; P < .001), and estimated blood loss (5000 mL vs 660 mL; P = .006). In patients treated with open repair, there were no significant differences in intraoperative fluid requirements between those who developed ACS and those without ACS. However, patients who developed ACS after open repair required significantly more crystalloid on the first and second postoperative days (first postoperative day, 8300 mL vs 5600 mL [P = .01]; second postoperative day, 6500 mL vs 3800 mL [P = .004])., Conclusions: This study demonstrates that the development of ACS after repair of rAAA is associated with increased mortality, especially in EVAR-treated patients. The higher intraoperative blood and blood product requirements associated with ACS in EVAR patients suggest that one potential cause of early ACS is continued hemorrhage from lumbar and inferior mesenteric vessels through the ruptured aneurysm sac. Hence, open ligation of such vessels should be considered in patients developing early ACS after EVAR for rAAA., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

In the future, medical management may play an increasingly important role in the prevention and management of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH). A review of different databases was used (PubMed, MEDLINE and EMBASE) with the search terms 'Intra-abdominal Pressure' (IAP), 'IAH', ' Abdominal Compartment Syndrome' (ACS), 'medical management' and 'non-surgical management'. We also reviewed all papers with the search terms 'IAH', 'IAP' and 'ACS' over the last three years, only extracting those papers which showed a novel approach in the non-surgical management of IAH and ACS.IAH and ACS are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Non-surgical management is an important treatment option in critically ill patients with raised IAP. There are five medical treatment options to be considered to reduce IAP: 1) improvement of abdominal wall compliance; 2) evacuation of intra-luminal contents; 3) evacuation of abdominal fluid collections; 4) optimisation of fluid administration; and 5) optimisation of systemic and regional perfusion. This paper will review the first three treatment arms of the WSACS algorithm: abdominal wall compliance; evacuation of intra-luminal contents and evacuation of abdominal fluid collections. Emerging medical treatments will be analysed and finally some alternative specific treatments will be assessed. Other treatment options with regard to optimising fluid administration and systemic and regional perfusion will be described elsewhere, and are beyond the scope of this review. Medical management of critically ill patients with raised IAP should be instigated early to prevent further organ dysfunction and to avoid progression to ACS. Many treatment options are available and are often part of routine daily management in the ICU (nasogastric, rectal tube, prokinetics, enema, sedation, body position). Some of the newer treatments are very promising options in specific patient populations with raised IAP. Future studies are warranted to confirm some of these findings.

Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are consistently associated with morbidity and mortality among the critically ill or injured. Thus, avoiding or potentially treating these conditions may improve patient outcomes. With the aim of improving the outcomes for patients with IAH/ACS, the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome recently updated its clinical practice guidelines. In this article, we review the association between a positive fluid balance and outcomes among patients with IAH/ACS and how optimisation of fluid administration and systemic/regional perfusion may potentially lead to improved outcomes among this patient population.Evidence consistently associates secondary IAH with a positive fluid balance. However, despite increased research in the area of non-surgical management of patients with IAH and ACS, evidence supporting this approach is limited. Some evidence exists to support implementing goal-directed resuscitation protocols and restrictive fluid therapy protocols in shocked and recovering critically ill patients with IAH. Data from animal experiments and clinical trials has shown that the early use of vasopressors and inotropic agents is likely to be safe and may help reduce excessive fluid administration, especially in patients with IAH. Studies using furosemide and/or renal replacement therapy to achieve a negative fluid balance in patients with IAH are encouraging. The type of fluid to be administered in patients with IAH remains far from resolved. There is currently insufficient evidence to recommend the use of abdominal perfusion pressure as a resuscitation endpoint in patients with IAH. However, it is important to recognise that IAH either abolishes or increases threshold values for pulse pressure variation and stroke volume variation to predict fluid responsiveness, while the presence of IAH may also result in a false negative passive leg raising test.Correct fluid therapy and perfusional support during resuscitation form the cornerstone of medical management in patients with abdominal hypertension. Controlled studies determining whether the above medical interventions may improve outcomes among those with IAH/ACS are urgently required.

Background: Open abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repair has gradually been replaced by endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR). The primary objective of this study is to establish baseline mortality data and compare our institutional mortality rates for ruptured AAA patients with published rates from institutions using similar approaches., Methods: This study is a retrospective review of 49 patients treated using a structured ruptured AAA (rAAA) protocol in a community teaching hospital. Variables examined include demographics, repair type, device used, presenting systolic blood pressure, presenting glomerular filtration rate, initial hematocrit, transfusions required, and development of postoperative abdominal compartment syndrome., Results: Forty-nine patients were treated using the rAAA protocol and 48 underwent repair. The 30-day mortality for rAAA and symptomatic AAA (sAAA) was 36.4% (12/33) and 20.0% (3/15), respectively, with a mean mortality of 31.2% (15/48). Mortality for rAAA treated by EVAR was 32.0% (8/25). Mortality for rAAA in the open repair group was 33% (2/6). Conversion from EVAR to open procedure (3/48) or 6% resulted in 100% mortality (P = 0.266). The development of abdominal compartment syndrome was an absolute predictor of death as mortality was 100% (P < 0.001). Other significant predictors of death include the following: (1) blood transfusion received during operation required in 10/14 deaths (71%) (P = 0.005) and (2) transfusion received anytime during hospitalization required in 12/14 deaths or 86% (P = 0.017)., Conclusions: The management and endovascular repair of sAAA or rAAA can be improved at the community hospital level by the implementation of standardized protocols. Blood transfusions and development of postoperative abdominal compartment syndrome significantly increase mortality. Individual institutional knowledge of results is critical to effective process improvement and optimal patient outcomes., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is a lethal complication of acute pancreatitis. We performed a systematic review to assess the treatment and outcome of these patients.A systematic literature search for cohorts of patients with acute pancreatitis and ACS was performed. The main outcomes were number of patients with ACS, radiologic and surgical interventions, morbidity, mortality, and methodological quality.After screening 169 articles, 7 studies were included. Three studies were prospective and 4 studies were retrospective. The overall methodological quality of the studies was moderate to low. The pooled data consisted of 271 patients, of whom 103 (38%) developed ACS. Percutaneous drainage of intraabdominal fluid was reported as first intervention in 11 (11%) patients. Additional decompressive laparotomy was performed in 8 patients. Decompressive laparotomy was performed in a total of 76 (74%) patients. The median decrease in intraabdominal pressure was 15 mm Hg (range, 33-18 mm Hg). Mortality in acute pancreatitis patients with ACS was 49% versus 11% without ACS. Morbidity ranged from 17% to 90%.Abdominal compartment syndrome during acute pancreatitis is associated with high mortality and morbidity. Studies are relatively small and have methodological shortcomings. The optimal timing and method of invasive interventions, as well as their effect on clinical outcomes, should be further evaluated.

Objective: To analyze the effect and the time course of continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) with net ultrafiltration (UF) on intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) body fluid volumes in septic shock patients with acute kidney injury (AKI)., Methods: Patients were studied at baseline and after 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours of CVVH treatment. IAP was measured via the bladder, and abdominal perfusion pressure (APP) was calculated as mean arterial pressure minus IAP. Fluid volume excess (VE), total body water (TBW), extracellular body water (ECW), and intracellular body water (ICW) were derived from wholebody bioimpedance analysis (BIA)., Results: 30 patients entered final analysis, of which 6 died during CVVH (non-survivors). Fluid VE, TBW, ECW, ICW, and IAP significantly decreased in 24 survivors, whereas these variables remained essentially unchangedin non-survivors. APP slowly increased in survivors, while it did not change in nonsurvivors. IAP strongly correlated with VEin survivors: The lower the IAP, the lower the fluid volume excess., Conclusion: CVVH with net UF successfully reduced IAP, TBW, ECW, and ICW in critically ill patients who survived 96 h of CVVH. Failure to increase APP was associated with fatal outcome, and, finally, IAP correlated with fluid volume excess. BIA could be helpful to monitor fluid status in patients with AKI.

Investigations were conducted in 53 patients, operated on in 2013 yr for abdominal sepsis (AS). The patients state severity was determined in accordance to the systemic inflammatory reaction and the polyorgan insufficiency severity. In 28 patients (group I) AS was diagnosed, in 14 (group II)--severe AS, in 11 (group III)--a septic shock. Tactics of surgical management of the patients have included two main measures: the infection origin control (source control), and control of the affected organ function and systemic defense mechanisms (damage control). In all the patients in AS the intraabdominal pressure rising was revealed. Syndrome of intraabdominal hypertension was noted in 10 (18.9%) patients (in 4--while presence of severe AS, and in 6--in septic shock). Lethality was the highest in intraabdominal hypertension degrees III and IV (11 of 25 patients have died).

This study assessed the risk factors associated with mortality and the development of intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) in patients with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). To identify significant risk factors, we assessed the following variables in 102 patients with SAP: age, gender, etiology, serum amylase level, white blood cell (WBC) count, serum calcium level, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE-II) score, computed tomography severity index (CTSI) score, pancreatic necrosis, surgical interventions, and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Statistically significant differences were identified using the Student t test and the χ (2) test. Independent risk factors for survival were analyzed by Cox proportional hazards regression. The following variables were significantly related to both mortality and IAH: WBC count, serum calcium level, serum amylase level, APACHE-II score, CTSI score, pancreatic necrosis, pancreatic necrosis >50%, and MODS. However, it was found that surgical intervention had no significant association with mortality. MODS and pancreatic necrosis >50% were found to be independent risk factors for survival in patients with SAP. Mortality and IAH from SAP were significantly related to WBC count, serum calcium level, serum amylase level, APACHE-II score, CTSI score, pancreatic necrosis, and MODS. However, Surgical intervention did not result in higher mortality. Moreover, MODS and pancreatic necrosis >50% predicted a worse prognosis in SAP patients.

Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are frequently encountered in patients treated for ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (rAAA) and carry a high morbidity and mortality risk. Despite these facts, IAH/ACS are still overlooked by many physicians, timely diagnosis is missed and treatment often inadequate. All staff involved in the treatment of rAAA should be aware of the risk factors predicting IAH/ACS, the profound implications and derangements on all organ systems, the clinical presentation, the appropriate measurement of intra-abdominal pressure to detect IAH/ACS and the current treatment options for these detrimental syndromes. This comprehensive review provides contemporary knowledge that should help to improve patient survival and long-term outcome.

Intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome (IAH/ACS) is a well-recognized entity among surgical subspecialties. Nevertheless, it has been proven to be present in the medical critically ill population. Prospective and retrospective observational studies have found medical patients with IAH/ACS to be associated with death in the intensive care unit and other poor outcomes. Frequently, it is underdiagnosed and undertreated in this patient group. Limitations encountered in these observational studies are their small population size and single-center design. In addition, most studies target consecutive intensive care unit admissions instead of limiting IAH/ACS screening to a predefined population confined by their risk factors (unspecified ascites, mechanical ventilation, positive fluid balance, etc.). Generally, medical patients with IAH/ACS are more severely ill compared with surgical patients. Furthermore, they are less likely to receive treatment targeted at lowering intra-abdominal pressure. Medical treatment of IAH/ACS has not been demonstrated to be specifically effective to avoid decompressive surgery. Identifying medical patients at risk of IAH represents an underresearched area for which training in measurement of abdominal pressure surrogates, awareness of its prevalence, and prevention and treatment of such condition could further improve outcomes in critically ill medical patients.

Objective: Limited data exist regarding the development of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) after endovascular repair of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (RAAAs). We aimed to record the incidence, management, and outcome of this complication., Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the English language literature was undertaken through June 2012. Articles reporting data on outcome after endovascular repair of RAAAs were identified, and information regarding ACS was sought., Results: Included were 39 eligible studies reporting 1134 patients. The pooled perioperative mortality was 21% (95% confidence interval [CI], 18%-24%). A total of 109 cases of ACS were recorded. There was significant within-study heterogeneity (Cochran Q = 94.1; P < .0001), and the pooled ACS rate was 8% (95% CI, 5.6%-10.8%). Only six studies accurately defined ACS, and four focused specifically on ACS. When the meta-analysis was repeated after including only studies with a definition and those focusing on ACS, the pooled rate increased to 17% (95% CI, 10%-26%) and 21% (95% CI, 13%-30%), respectively. A random-effects meta-regression analysis investigating the effect of ACS and other risk factors on mortality revealed a significant linear correlation between hemodynamic instability and death (r = 0.303) and a nonlinear (second degree polynomial) association between bifurcated endograft approach and death (R(2) = 0.348; P = .0027). However, no statistically significant association could be found between ACS and death. A further meta-regression analysis failed to identify any statistically significant predictors of ACS. Treatment included open decompression in 86 patients, percutaneous drainage in 18 (catheter only in five, combined with tissue plasminogen activator infusion in 13), and conservative measures in five. Data on outcome of ACS were only available for 76 patients; 35 of these died, for a mortality rate of 47%., Conclusions: The pooled ACS rate was calculated at 8%, but this figure may be >20% with improved awareness and vigilant monitoring. Although no statistically significant association could be found between ACS and death, almost half the patients who developed ACS after endovascular repair of RAAAs were likely to die., (Copyright © 2014 Society for Vascular Surgery. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are complications that may occur in severely burned patients. Evidenced based medicine for these patients is in its early development. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of literature regarding IAH and ACS in severely burned patients., Methods: A systematic search was performed in Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and CINAHL on October 1, 2012. These databases were searched on 'burn', 'intra-abdominal hypertension', 'abdominal compartment syndrome', synonyms and abbreviations. Studies reporting original data on mortality, abdominal decompression or abdominal pressure related complications were included., Results: Fifty publications met the criteria, reporting 1616 patients. The prevalence of ACS and IAH in severely burned patients is 4.1-16.6% and 64.7-74.5%, respectively. The mean mortality rate for ACS in burn patients is 74.8%. The use of plasma and hypertonic lactated resuscitation may prevent IAH or ACS. Despite colloids decrease resuscitation volume needs, no benefit in preventing IAH was proven. Escharotomy, peritoneal catheter drainage, and decompression laparotomy are effective intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) diminishing treatments in burn patients. Markers for IAP-related organ damage might be superior to IAP measurement itself., Conclusion: ACS and IAH are frequently seen devastating complications in already severely injured burn patients. Prevention is challenging but can be achieved by improving fluid resuscitation strategies. Surgical decompression measures are effective and often unavoidable. Timing is essential since decompression should prevent progression to ACS rather than limit its effects. Prognosis of ACS remains poor, but options for care improvement are available in literature., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd and ISBI. All rights reserved.)

Abdominal compartment syndrome is defined as a pathological elevation of intraabdominal pressure associated with significant organ dysfunction and failure. Organ dysfunction mainly affects the renal, pulmonary, cardiac, gastrointestinal, and central nervous system. A high level of suspicion for this condition and early identification of patients at risk are mandatory for the successful management of abdominal compartment syndrome, which includes conservative and operative strategies.

Purpose: Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) may complicate ECMO due to significant fluid shifts resulting in tense ascites and interstitial edema. This compromises venous cannula flow leading to inadequate patient support. It is debatable whether decompressive laparotomy should be performed in these patients due to the risk of bleeding and poor prognosis. We sought to evaluate the effect of decompressive laparotomy on ECMO support and patient survival., Methods: We reviewed our tertiary care children's hospital ECMO registry (2000-2011) identifying those who underwent decompressive laparotomy. All had ACS as characterized by abdominal hypertension with abdominal distention, hemodynamic instability, oliguria, rising central venous pressures, and inadequate venous return to the ECMO circuit. Physiologic parameters immediately before and 60 min after laparotomy were compared using a signed rank test., Results: Seven patients were identified. ACS developed within 8 h of initiating ECMO in 6 patients. Decompressive laparotomy resulted in significant improvement of patient physiologic parameters and ECMO venous return. One patient had significant bleeding following laparotomy. There were no survivors but three were organ donation candidates after stabilization via decompressive laparotomy., Conclusion: Decompressive laparotomy for ACS in patients on ECMO markedly improves support and tissue perfusion. While in our series ECMO complicated by ACS carries a poor prognosis, we cannot confidently define this as futile therapy due to the limited sample size., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Pediatric post-cardiac surgery patients are at risk for acute kidney injury and intraabdominal hypertension. The present study assesses indications and outcomes of postoperative peritoneal dialysis catheter (PDC) placement in this population., Methods: We retrospectively reviewed single-institution patients who underwent PDC placement post-cardiac surgery between 1999 and 2011 (n=55). Baseline, clinical course, and outcome data were recorded pre- and post-PDC. We used multivariable logistic and Cox analyses to assess factors associated with mortality., Results: In-hospital mortality of the study cohort was 67.3% (n=37). Peritoneal dialysis was performed in 21 patients (38.2%). Five patients (9.1%) experienced adverse events related to PDC placement. Greater post-PDC decreases in abdominal girth (adjusted odds ratio [OR]=2.43; P=0.02) and BUN (OR=1.06; P=0.04) were associated with survival. Additionally, preoperative ventilator independence (hazard ratio [HR]=1.18; P<0.01) and lower creatinine (HR=8.32; P<0.01), as well as greater post-PDC decrease in inotrope score (HR=1.33; P<0.02) were associated with survival., Conclusions: In-hospital mortality of the study cohort was 67%. Less severe pre-PDC renal impairment, increased pre-PDC abdominal girth, and greater post-PDC improvement of abdominal girth, renal function, and inotrope requirements were associated with survival. Prospective trials are needed to assess appropriate indications and timing of PDC placement, with consideration of more aggressive treatment for intraabdominal hypertension., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To date, there are no published reports comparing hemodynamically (Hd)-stable and Hd-unstable patients with ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms (r-AAAs) undergoing endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR). This study evaluates outcomes of EVAR for r-AAA based on patient's Hd status, Methods: From 2002 to 2011, 136 patients with r-AAAs underwent EVAR and were categorized into two groups based on systolic blood pressure (SBP) measurements before EVAR: 92 (68%) Hd-stable (SBP ≥ 80 mm Hg) and 44 (32%) Hd-unstable (SBP <80 mm Hg for >10 minutes). All data were prospectively entered in a database and retrospectively analyzed. Outcomes included 30-day mortality, postoperative complications, the need for secondary reinterventions, and midterm mortality. The effect of potential predictors on 30-day mortality was assessed by χ(2) and logistic regression., Results: Of the 136 r-AAA patients with EVAR, the Hd-stable and Hd-unstable groups had similar comorbidities (coronary artery disease, 63% vs 59%; hypertension, 72% vs 75%; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 21% vs 26%; and chronic renal insufficiency, 18% vs 18%), mean AAA maximum diameter (6.6 vs 6.4 cm), need for on-the-table conversion to open surgical repair (3% vs 7%), and incidences of nonfatal complications (43% vs 38%) and secondary interventions (23% vs 25%). Preoperative computed tomography scan was available in significantly fewer Hd-unstable patients (64% vs 100%; P < .05). Compared with Hd-stable patients, the Hd-unstable patients had a significantly higher intraoperative need for aortic occlusion balloon (40% vs 6%; P < .05), mean estimated blood loss (744 vs 363 mL; P < .05), incidence of developing abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS; 29% vs 4%; P < .01), and death (33% vs 18%; P < .05). ACS was a significant predictor of death; death in all r-EVAR with ACS was significantly higher compared with all r-EVAR without ACS (10 of 17 [59%] vs 22 of 119 [18%]; P < .01)., Conclusions: EVAR for r-AAA is feasible in Hd-stable and Hd-unstable patients, with a comparable incidence of conversion to open surgical repair, nonfatal complications, and secondary interventions. Hd-stable patients have reduced mortality at 30 days, whereas Hd-unstable patients require intraoperative aortic occlusion balloon more frequently, and have an increased risk for developing ACS and death., (Copyright © 2013 Society for Vascular Surgery. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: We sought to elucidate whether minocycline, a broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic with potent anti-inflammation capacity, could mitigate inflammatory response and organ dysfunction in the lungs and liver induced by hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation (HS) plus abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS)., Materials and Methods: Adult male rats were randomized to receive HS plus ACS or HS plus ACS plus minocycline (denoted as the HS/A and HS/A-M group, respectively; n = 12). Sham-instrumentation groups were employed to serve as the controls. Hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation was induced by blood drawing (mean arterial pressure: 40-45 mm Hg for 60 min) followed by shed blood/saline mixture reinfusion. Subsequently, intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) was increased to 25 mm Hg by injecting air into the preplaced intraperitoneal latex balloon to induce ACS. Minocycline (20 mg/kg) was intravenously administered immediately after resuscitation. IAP was maintained at 25 mm Hg for 6 h. Then, all rats were euthanized., Results: The levels of polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration, the wet/dry weight ratio, and the concentrations of inflammatory molecules (e.g., chemokine, cytokine, and prostaglandin E2) in lung and liver tissues of the HS/A group were significantly higher than those of the HS/A-M groups (all P < 0.05). Moreover, the levels of lung dysfunction (assayed by arterial blood gas) and liver dysfunction (assayed by plasma concentrations of bilirubin, aspartate aminotransferase, and alaninine aminotransferase) of the HS/A group were significantly higher than those of the HS/A-M group (all P < 0.05)., Conclusions: Minocycline ameliorates inflammatory response and organ dysfunction in the lungs and liver induced by hemorrhagic shock/resuscitation plus abdominal compartment syndrome., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Damage control laparotomy has become an accepted approach for patients with life-threatening abdominal conditions. This method compromises fascial integrity creating functionally and aesthetically debilitating hernias. The purpose of this study is to present our technique and outcomes with these complex abdominal wall reconstructions., Methods: A retrospective review was conducted on 56 patients with previous damage control laparotomies who underwent elective single-stage abdominal wall reconstruction between 1999 and 2006. Mean age was 42 years. Reconstruction consisted of a double-layer, subfascial Vicryl mesh buttress, combined with components separation and rectus muscle turnover flaps. Hernia recurrence and function were evaluated by clinical examinations and telephone surveys., Results: The major etiologies of abdominal hernias were gunshot wounds, motor vehicle accidents or blunt trauma, and sepsis or perforated bowel. The mean abdominal wall defect was 865 cm, and the average interval time to definitive repair was 17 months. The average length of follow-up was 29 months. Most patients (88%) had successful repair of their abdominal wall, with no hernia recurrence. There were 7 cases of hernia. Of these, 2 cases were from reopening of abdomen because of compartment syndrome that was not repaired, 3 were small asymptomatic hernias for which patients elected not to undergo further repair. Other complications include superficial skin dehiscence, all of which healed secondarily with daily wound care 12% (7 patients) and abdominal compartment syndrome 7.1% (4 patients), resulting in 2 postoperative mortalities in the initial part of the series. There were no mesh exposures, seromas, or fistulas. In all, 29% or 52% of patients were reached by telephone. Of those, 90% surveyed and who worked full-time prior to injury returned to their jobs, and 92% were functioning at premorbid activity levels., Conclusion: Massive abdominal hernia following damage control laparotomy poses a great challenge to the reconstructive surgeon. This patient population is at significant risk for mortality and morbidity. We believe the use of a Vicryl mesh buttress is an important adjunctive tool in complex abdominal wall reconstruction. Functional results are excellent with most returning to work and preinjury activity levels.

Bladder pressure measurements (BPMs) are considered a key component in the diagnosis of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS). The purpose of this observational review was to determine risk factors of ACS and associated mortality with particular focus on the role of BPM. A retrospective trauma registry and chart review was performed on trauma patients from January 2003 through December 2010. Comparisons were made between patients with and without ACS. There were 3172 patients included in the study of whom 46 had ACS. Patients with ACS were younger, more severely injured, with longer lengths of stay. Logistic regression determined Injury Severity Score (ISS) and urinary catheter days as independent predictors of ACS, whereas independent predictors of mortality included age, ISS, and ACS. Subset analysis demonstrated no association between BPM 20 mmHg or greater and diagnosis of ACS versus no ACS. Logistic regression indicated independent predictors of mortality were number of BPM 20 mmHg or greater and age. Patients with ACS are more severely injured with worse outcomes. An isolated BPM 20 mmHg or greater was not associated with ACS and may be inadequate to independently diagnose ACS. These findings suggest the need for repeat measurements with early intervention if they remain elevated in an effort to decrease mortality associated with ACS.

Abdominal compartment syndrome is defined as sustained intra-abdominal pressure greater than 20 mm Hg (with or without abdominal perfusion pressure <60 mm Hg) associated with new organ failure or dysfunction. The syndrome is associated with 90% to 100% mortality if not recognized and treated in a timely manner. Nurses are responsible for accurately measuring intra-abdominal pressure in children with abdominal compartment syndrome and for alerting physicians about important changes. This article provides relevant definitions, outlines risk factors for abdominal compartment syndrome developing in children, and discusses an instructive case involving an adolescent with abdominal compartment syndrome. Techniques for measuring intra-abdominal pressure, normal ranges, and the importance of monitoring in the critical care setting for timely identification of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome also are discussed.