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For Ghanaian women of reproductive age (WRA), anemia remains a pressing issue. Currently, at the global level, anemia affects 35% of this population according to the most recent 'State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World' report. In Ghana, anemia is mostly associated with iron deficiency and, if left untreated, could result in several adverse outcomes including severe fatigue and exhaustion resulting in decreased work productivity, neurocognitive impairment, and complications with chronic kidney disease. Various strategies can effectively reduce iron-deficiency anemia at the population level, including food fortification, supplementation, and dietary improvement. Unfortunately, these have failed to reach Ghanaian women adequately and equitably, resulting in many not meeting their nutritional needs. As an alternative strategy to curtail iron deficiency, edible insects, such as palm weevil larvae, have been suggested for their nutritional benefits, cost-effective rearing, and yearly availability. As such, popularizing their consumption could present an opportunity to improve WRA's iron status in Ghana. To assess the feasibility of this strategy, formative research is needed to examine local attitudes, knowledge, and beliefs associated with the consumption of palm weevil larvae. Formative research was conducted in five peri-urban communities in the Ashanti region of Ghana that were purposefully selected for the study. These communities were separated into two clusters based on their access to palm trees. The analysis was based on 12 focus group discussions conducted with 121 female respondents, at which point data saturation was reached. Thematic analysis was used to examine the facilitators and barriers to palm weevil larvae consumption as well as WRA's general knowledge of nutrition and anemia. Women generally had favorable perceptions of palm weevil larvae as a nutritious food in its raw, frozen, and processed forms, and were eager to be involved in its value chain. The factors positively influencing the acceptance of palm weevil larvae were its perceived nutritional and health benefits, and its taste. The main barriers to its consumption in all communities were its scarcity, difficult and inconsistent access, and fear of unauthenticity and unsafety. Finally, despite women's general awareness of the importance of iron, persistent misinformation by health-professionals undermined their perceived seriousness of iron-deficiency anemia. Women's clear interest in palm weevil larvae is encouraging for the community-based domestication of palm weevil larvae. Future studies should examine the feasibility and logistical requirements of such a strategy and its impact on increasing the consumption of palm weevil larvae. Key words: formative research, palm weevil larvae, edible insects, food fortification, anemia, INTRODUCTION Micronutrient deficiencies, also called 'hidden hunger,' remain a widely prevalent threat to human health. In 2019, 1.7 billion people, including 30% of women of reproductive age (WRA), were estimated [...]

A vector of multiple arboviruses, the invasive Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus was recently found to develop inside the pitchers of the purple pitcher plant Sarracenia purpurea in a forested environment. In this study larvae and pupae of Ae. albopictus were found in S. purpurea pitchers in a peridomestic habitat in central North Carolina. Evidence of direct oviposition on the inner sides of the pitchers was obtained by dissecting pitchers and examining the insides for eggs, which were then raised to adults. To determine if pitcher size and origin (same or different plant) affected the presence of immature Ae. albopictus, these variables were measured and compared against the presence/absence of larvae and/or pupae through a logistic regression analysis. Statistical evidence showed pitchers widi larger openings were much more likely to contain larvae and/or pupae, and pitchers from the same plant were not significantly more often colonized than pitchers on other plants. These data, in combination with the presence of dead adult females in pitchers, suggest the morphology of some pitchers may prevent successful oviposition by gravid females., INTRODUCTION A great deal of research has been conducted on mosquito preoviposition. This large body of work has shown that the location at which mosquitoes oviposit may be chosen based [...]

This study aimed to assess the effect on nutritional composition of two 'Edible Insects' (Larva of Oryctes boas and Rhynchophorus phoenicis) after infestation by Dermestes maculatus. The study was done over a period of six weeks by subjecting these edible insects to different conditions of storage (using pepper and salt). The assessment was based on weight and proximate analysis differences before and after infestation under these media of storage. The larva of Oryctes boas in the container with salt as preservative had the least weight loss (from 30.00 ± .0000 → 39.70 ± .3000 → 36.30 ± 1.000), followed by the container with pepper as preservative (from 30.00 ± .0000 → 31.05 ± 5.000 → 25.25 ± .1500) while the highest weight loss occurred in the container without preservative constituents (from 30.00 ± .0000 → 30.30 ± 1.000 → 21.15 ± 5.000). Likewise, the larva of Rhynchoporus phoenicis in the container with salt as preservative constituent had the least weight difference of (16.00 ±.0000 → 20.80 ± .0000 → 13.65 ± .1500); followed by the container with pepper as preservative (from 16.00 ± .0000 → 16.40 ± 1.000 → 6.700 ± .2000), while the highest weight loss occurred in the container without preservative (from 16.00 + .0000 → 7.850 ± 5.000 → 6.300 ± .0000). The mortality rate of Dermestes maculatus was also determined, showing that the larva of Oryctes boas and Rhynchophorus phoenicis containing salt as preservative had the highest mortality rate of 60% and 80%, respectively, followed by that containing pepper as preservative having 20% and 30% respectively, and that containing no preservative constituent had no mortality rate. It was concluded that, Dermestes maculatus' infestations on the larva of edible insects showed a difference in the proximate analysis of these edible insects before and after infestation. Therefore, it was suggested that edible insects should be well dried and locally preserved with salt and pepper. Key words: Dermestes maculatus, Rhynchoporus phoenicis, Oryctes boas, proximate, mortality, INTRODUCTION Over the past decades, recognition by people of the effects of Dermestes maculatus on the role of nutritional value of stored product in food security has grown considerably. Several [...]

The digestive tract of actinotroch consists of the vestibulum, oesophagus, stomach with stomach diverticulum, midgut, and proctodaeum. Monociliate muscle cells resting on the basal lamina of the oesophagus form its circular musculature. The epithelium of the cardiac sphincter contains axonal tracts and neurosecretory cells. Glandular, secretory, and digestive cells form the epithelium of the stomach and stomach diverticulum. The epithelium of the midgut is biciliate. The proctodaeum is divided into two parts, differing in fine structure and function. Individual serotonian and FMRFamide neurons and fibers occur in the oesophagus, cardiac sphincter, and midgut, as well as surrounding the anus. In larvae of Phoronopsis harmeri Pixell, 1912 during metamorphosis, the larval oesophagus gives rise to the juvenile oesohagus, the upper portion of the stomach stretches and transforms into prestomach, the stomach diverticulum moves into the stomach and then is digested, the larval stomach becomes the juvenile stomach, the midgut gives rise to the pyloric region, and the proctodaeum transforms into the ascending branch of the juvenile digestive tract. The data do not support the views that the proximal part of adult digestive tract forms from the ectodermal epithelium of the dorsal and ventral epidermis of the larva or that the telotroch enters the intestine during metamorphosis. Le systeme digestif des larves actinotroques consiste en un vestibule, un oesophage, un estomac avec un diverticule gastrique, un tube digestif moyen et un proctodeum. Des cellules musculaires monociliees reposant sur la lamelle de base de l'oesophage forment sa musculature circulaire. L'epithelium du sphincter cardiaque contient des tractus axonaux et des cellules neurosecretrices. Des cellules glandulaires, secretrices et digestives forment l'epithelium de l'estomac et du diverticule gastrique. L'epithelium du tube digestif moyen est bicilie. Le proctodeum se divise en deux parties qui different par leur structure fine et leur fonction. Des neurones et des fibres individuels a serotonine et a amide FMRF se retrouvent dans l'oesophage, le sphincter cardiaque et le tube digestif moyen, ainsi qu'autour de l'anus. Chez les larves de Phoronopsis harmeri Pixell, 1912 durant la metamorphose, l'oesophage de la larve se transforme en oesophage juvenile, la portion superieure de l'estomac s'etire et se transforme en pre-estomac et le diverticule gastrique se deplace dans l'estomac et est ensuite digere, l'estomac larvaire devient un estomac juvenile, le tube digestif moyen produit la region pylorique et le proctodeum se transforme en branche ascendante du tube digestif juvenile. Les donnes n'appuient pas les propositions voulant que la partie proximale du tube digestif de l'adulte se forme a partir de l'epithelium ectodermique des epidermes dorsaux et ventraux de la larve et que la telotroche penetre dans le tube digestif durant la metamorphose. [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction Most known phoronid species have free-swimming larvae called Actinotrocha Muller, 1846. Actinotrochs usually live in plankton for several months, where they may increase to as many as 1000 individuals/cm3 [...]

Studies of right--left asymmetries have yielded valuable insights into the mechanisms of both development and evolution. Larvae from several groups of caddisflies (Trichoptera) build portable asymmetrical cases within which they live. In nearly all species that build spiral-walled tubular cases, the direction of wall coiling is random (equal numbers of dextral and sinistral cases within species) whereas in all species that build helicospiral, snail-like cases the direction of coiling is exclusively dextral. Asymmetrical tubes result from handed behavior, and ~20% of larvae removed from a spiral-walled, tubular case build a replacement case of opposite chirality. So handed behavior (and hence direction of tube-wall spiraling) is likely learned rather than determined genetically. Asymmetrical larval cases appear to have evolved at least seven times in the Trichoptera, five times as spiral-walled tubes and twice as snail-like helicospiral cases. Helicospiral cases may reduce vulnerability to predation by mimicking snail shells, whereas spiral arrangements of vegetation fragments in tube walls may be more robust mechanically than other arrangements, but experimental evidence is lacking. Within one family (Phryganeidae), one or perhaps two species exhibit an excess of sinistral-walled cases, suggesting that genes that bias handed behavior in a particular direction evolved after handed behaviors already existed (genetic assimilation). doi: 10.1093/icb/icq069

The planktonic larval stage is a critical component of life history in marine benthic species because it confers the ability to disperse, potentially connecting remote populations and leading to colonization of new sites. Larval-mediated connectivity is particularly intriguing in deep-sea hydrothermal vent communities, where the habitat is patchy, transient, and often separated by tens or hundreds of kilometers. A recent catastrophic eruption at vents near 9[degrees]50'N on the East Pacific Rise created a natural clearance experiment and provided an opportunity to study larval supply in the absence of local source populations. Previous field observations have suggested that established vent populations may retain larvae and be largely self-sustaining. If this hypothesis is correct, the removal of local populations should result in a dramatic change in the flux, and possibly species composition, of settling larvae. Fortuitously, monitoring of larval supply and colonization at the site had been established before the eruption and resumed shortly afterward. We detected a striking change in species composition of larvae and colonists after the eruption, most notably the appearance of the gastropod Ctenopelta porifera, an immigrant from possibly more than 300 km away, and the disappearance of a suite of species that formerly had been prominent. This switch demonstrates that larval supply can change markedly after removal of local source populations, enabling recolonization via immigrants from distant sites with different species composition. Population connectivity at this site appears to be temporally variable, depending not only on stochasticity in larval supply, but also on the presence of resident populations. larval dispersal | population connectivity | Ctenopelta | Lepetodrilus | East Pacific Rise doi/ 10.1073/pnas.0913187107

The influence of macroinvertebrate diet on growth and fatty acid profiles of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr released at the fry stage in three different riffles was studied in a large temperate river (Allier, France). Comparisons were made between sites and between restocked parr and hatchery-reared counterparts fed with a traditional fish diet. Significant differences were observed along the longitudinal gradient of the river and between restocked and hatchery-reared parr. Growth performance and nutritional status were higher in the hatchery and in downstream riffles and low in the most upstream site. These differences appeared to be related to different types of diet and consequently to variations in polar and neutral lipid intakes. The most favorable site for optimum growth appeared to be the intermediary riffle, with values close to those achieved in the hatchery. Simuliids and baetids, preferentially consumed in downstream sites, constitute an interesting type of food, showing quite different fatty acid composition from vegetable oils. This could be of interest for composing a new diet formula for young salmon intended for river restocking, imitating these macroinvertebrate fatty acid profiles. Resume: L'influence de la consommation de proies naturelles sur la croissance et les profils d'acides gras de tacons de saumon atlantique (Salmo salar) deverses dans differents radiers a ete etudiee sur un grand cours d'eau europeen: l'Allier, France. Des comparaisons ont ete effectuees entre trois sites de deversement etages de l'amont vers l'aval, ainsi qu'entre les tacons relaches et leurs homologues maintenus en salmoniculture et nourris d'aliments artificiels formules a partir de farines de poissons. Les meilleures performances de croissance et de statut nutritionnel ont ete observes en salmoniculture ainsi que dans les radiers aval, tandis que les plus faibles ont ete enregistrees sur le radier situe le plus en amont. Ces observations semblent etre liees aux differences de regime alimentaire, et par consequent, a des teneurs variables en lipides neutres et polaires. Le radier le plus favorable a la croissance des tacons semble etre le site intermediaire qui presente des performances proches de celles observees en salmoniculture. En outre, les simulides et les baetides, proies preferentiellement consommees dans les sites aval, semblent constituer une nourriture interessante pour les juveniles en raison de leurs profils particuliers d'acides gras. Ces dipteres pourraient ainsi permettre de formuler de nouveaux aliments artificiels destines aux tacons de repeuplement., Introduction Salmonid farming in France traditionally uses diets based on marine fish meal and oil because farmed species are commonly carnivorous. This is also the case in rearing young Atlantic [...]

Ecologists have long studied the effect of predators on prey population abundance while evolutionary biologists have measured prey trait evolution in response to predation. Ecological and evolutionary processes were generally thought to occur on different time scales, but recent evidence suggests that evolution may alter the ecological effects of predation over the course of ecological experiments. We used a protozoan and its mosquito-larvae predator, naturally found in the water-filled leaves of pitcher plants, to examine the effect of prey evolution on predator--prey interactions. In experiments conducted over 12 days (approximately 50 prey generations, but less than one predator generation), we measured a decrease in the effect of mosquito larvae predators on protozoa prey populations. In a separate set of experiments, we found that the presence of predators corresponded with evolution of smaller cell size and increased population growth rate. In ecological experiments, two situations commonly occur: strong selection pressure applied by the treatment itself and discrepancies in generation times of associate species. Our results suggest that in either situation, the resulting evolutionary patterns may lead to dramatic and important changes in ecological effect size. Key words: Colpoda; effect size; mosquito larvae; predator; prey; protozoa; rapid evolution; resistance; Sarracenia purpurea; tolerance.

ABSTRACT Distortion coordinates (Cartesian Transformations) are used to compare the ontogenetic allometry in cranial morphology of first, second, and third instars of Hydaticus bimarginatus (Say). The most significant difference in [...]

Phenol oxidase (PO), a copper-containing enzyme with oxygenase activity, can convert mono-or diphenol into quinone and plays an important role in the arthropod melanization reaction. Here, we report a new property of PO from Musca domestica larvae: a thermotolerant endonuclease activity, by which PO can degrade piasmid DNA even after being heated to 80° C for 20 min. We cloned PO cDNA, constructed the expression vector pVAXI-PO, and expressed it in HeLa cells. The expression product showed the same properties as purified PO. Our data indicate that PO is a bifunctional enzyme, exhibiting both oxygenase and endonuclease activity, suggesting new roles for this important molecule in the innate responses of M. domestica., Introduction Phenol oxidase (PO), also known as tyrosinase, is a copper-containing enzyme with monophenol monooxygenase activity and o-diphenol oxidase activity. PO catalyzes the oxidation of phenols to quinones; the quinone [...]

Insects have an open circulatory system in which the heart pumps blood (hemolymph) into the body cavity, where it directly bathes the internal organs and epidermis. The blood contains free and tissue-bound immune cells that function in the inflammatory response. Here, we use live imaging of transgenic Drosophila larvae with fluorescently labeled blood cells (hemocytes) to investigate the circulatory dynamics of larval blood cells and their response to tissue injury. We find that, under normal conditions, the free cells rapidly circulate, whereas the tissue-bound cells are sessile. After epidermal wounding, tissue-bound cells around the wound site remain sessile and unresponsive, whereas circulating cells are rapidly recruited to the site of damage by adhesive capture. After capture, these cells distribute across the wound, appear phagocytically active, and are subsequently released back into circulation by the healing epidermis. The results demonstrate that circulating cells function as a surveillance system that monitors larval tissues for damage, and that adhesive capture, an important mechanism of recruitment of circulating cells to inflammatory sites in vertebrates, is shared by insects and vertebrates despite the vastly different architectures of their circulatory systems. adhesion | inflammation | live-imaging | wound healing

In many insects, the rapid cold-hardening (RCH) response significantly enhances cold tolerance in minutes to hours. Larvae of the Antarctic midge, Belgica antarctica, exhibit a novel form of RCH, by which they increase their freezing tolerance. In this study, we examined whether cold-sensing and RCH in B. antarctica occur in vitro and whether calcium is required to generate RCH. As demonstrated previously, 1 h at -5[degrees]C significantly increased organismal freezing tolerance at both -15[degrees]C and -20[degrees]C. Likewise, RCH enhanced cell survival of fat body, Malpighian tubules, and midgut tissue of larvae frozen at -20[degrees]C. Furthermore, isolated tissues retained the capacity for RCH in vitro, as demonstrated with both a dye exclusion assay and a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT)-based viability assay, thus indicating that coldsensing and RCH in B. antarctica occur at the cellular level. Interestingly, there was no difference in survival between tissues that were supercooled at -5[degrees]C and those frozen at -5[degrees]C, suggesting that temperature mediates the RCH response independent of the freezing of body fluids. Finally, we demonstrated that calcium is required for RCH to occur. Removing calcium from the incubating solution slightly decreased cell survival after RCH treatments, while blocking calcium with the intracellular chelator BAPTA-AM significantly reduced survival in the RCH treatments. The calmodulin inhibitor N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-l-naphthalenesulfonamide hydrochloride (W-7) also significantly reduced cell survival in the RCH treatments, thus supporting a role for calcium in RCH. This is the first report implicating calcium as an important second messenger in the RCH response. insect cold-hardening; rapid acclimation; calcium signaling: freezetolerant insects

The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is the principal Afrotropical vector for human malaria. A central component of its vectorial capacity is the ability to maintain sufficient populations of adults. During both adult and preadult (larval) stages, the mosquitoes depend on the ability to recognize and respond to chemical cues that mediate feeding and survival. In this study, we used a behavioral assay to identify a range of odorant-specific responses of An. gambiae larvae that are dependent on the integrity of the larval antennae. Parallel molecular analyses have identified a subset of the An. gambiae odorant receptors (AgOrs) that are localized to discrete neurons within the larval antennae and facilitate odor-evoked responses in Xenopus oocytes that are consistent with the larval behavioral spectrum. These studies shed light on chemosensory-driven behaviors and represent molecular and cellular characterization of olfactory processes in mosquito larvae. These advances may ultimately enhance the development of vector control strategies, targeting olfactory pathways in larval-stage mosquitoes to reduce the catastrophic effects of malaria and other diseases. malaria | olfaction | signal transduction | odorant receptors

Several members of the Rubiaceae and Violaceae plant families produce a series of cyclotides or macrocyclic peptides of 28-37 aa with an embedded cystine knot. The cyclic peptide backbone together with the knotted and strongly braced structure confers exceptional chemical and biological stability that has attracted attention for potential pharmaceutical applications. Cyclotides display a diverse range of biological activities, such as uterotonic action, anti-HIV activity, and neurotensin antagonism. In plants, their primary role is probably protection from insect attack. Ingestion of the cyclotide kalata B1 severely retards the growth of larvae from the Lepidopteran species Helicoverpa armigera. We examined the gut of these larvae after consumption of kalata B1 by light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy. We established that kalata B1 induces disruption of the microvilli, blebbing, swelling, and ultimately rupture of the cells of the gut epithelium. The histology of this response is similar to the response of H. armigera larvae to the Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxin, which is widely used to control these insect pests of crops such as cotton. circular peptides | insecticidal | kalata B1 | Lepidoptera | microscopy

There is a critical need for genetic methods for the inducible expression of transgenes in specific cells during development. A promising approach for this is the GeneSwitch GAL4 system of Drosophila. With GeneSwitch GAL4 the expression of upstream activating sequence (UAS) effector lines is controlled by a chimeric GAL4 protein that becomes active in the presence of the steroid RU486 (mifepristone). To improve the utility of this expression system, we performed a large-scale enhancer-trap screen for insertions that yielded nervons system expression. A total of 204 GeneSwitch GAL4 lines with various larval expression patterns in neurons, glia, and/or muscle fibers were identified for chromosomes I-III. All of the retained lines show increased activity when induced with RU486. Many of the lines reveal novel patterns of sensory neurons, interneurons, and glia. There were some tissue-specific differences in background expression, with muscles and glia being more likely to show activity in the absence of the inducing agent. However, >90% of the neuron-specific driver lines showed little or no background activity, making them particularly useful for inducible expression studies.

Abstract: Larvae of the endemic Hawaiian leafroller moth, Omiodes continuatalis (Wallengren), were used in controlled exposure trials on the island of Maui, Hawaii, in May-August 2006, to examine effects of [...]

ABSTRACT Larvae collected from a Georgia temporary habitat were identified as Hydaticus bimarginatus based on the presence of trilobed pre-mentum and distribution records. These larvae have well-developed series of natatory [...]

Cell fate determination is often the outcome of specific interactions between adjacent cells. However, cells frequently change positions during development, and thus signaling molecules might be synthesized far from their final site of action. Here, we analyze the regulation of the torso-like gene, which is required to trigger Torso receptor tyrosine kinase activation in the Drosophila embryo. Whereas torso is present in the oocyte, torso-like is expressed in the egg chamber, at the posterior follicle cells and in two separated groups of anterior cells, the border cells and the centripetal cells. We find that JAK/STAT signaling regulates torso-like expression in the posterior follicle cells and border cells but not in the centripetal cells, where torso-like is regulated by a different enhancer. The border and centripetal cells, which are originally apart, converge at the anterior end of the oocyte, and we find that both groups contribute to trigger Torso activation. Our results illustrate how independently acquired expression of a signaling molecule can constitute a mechanism by which distinct groups of cells act together in the activation of a signaling pathway. cell signaling | Drosophila | JAK/STAT

Competition is predicted to affect the expression of inducible defenses, but because costs of behavioral and morphological antipredator defenses differ along resource gradients, its effects on defenses may depend on the traits considered. We tested the predictions from different defense models in tadpoles of the common frog Rana temporaria, which exhibit both types of defenses. In an outdoor experiment, we exposed the tadpoles to nonlethal predators (Aeshna dragonfly larvae) and to a gradient of intraspecific competition. Morphological responses did not follow any of the expected patterns, since investment in defense was not affected by resource level. Instead, tail depth decreased in the absence of predators. Behavioral defenses followed a state-dependent model. Overall, the defense strategy of the tadpoles revealed a shift from morphological and behavioral defenses at low tadpole density to morphological defense only at high density. This difference probably reflects the different efficiency of the defenses. Hiding is an effective means of defense, but it is unsustainable when resources are scarce. Morphological responses become more important with increasing density to compensate for the increase in behavioral risk-taking. Our results indicate that competition can strongly affect reaction norms of inducible defenses and highlight the importance of integrating ecological parameters that affect the cost benefit balance of phenotypic plasticity. Key words: competition; costs; inducible defenses; phenotypic plasticity; predation; tadpole.