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The increasing demand for safe and sustainably produced food is leading to the development of strategies of pest control alternative to chemicals. One innovative method is Vibrational Mating Disruption (VMD) to disrupt insect communication in plants. VMD was proven effective in preventing mating of the grapevine pest Scaphoideus titanus, vector of flavescence dorée. However, the stress induced by VMD on the target species has the potential to influence other crucial aspects of the insect biology and ethology. Therefore, the goal of this study was to understand side effects of VMD on the flight activity and oviposition of S. titanus. The results of our experiments conducted in the greenhouse showed that in the presence of a receptive female, males fly more if exposed to vibrations than in the silent control but not differently from singles males in silence. Surprisingly, we found that also females subjected to VMD fly more than in the silence. Regarding oviposition, we found that mated females exposed to vibrations and single females (unmated) laid significantly fewer eggs than mated females in silence. In conclusion, this study shows the potential of VMD to interfere, besides with mating, with other important biological aspects of the pest species., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest None., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ionizing radiation (IR) has wide-ranging applications in various fields. In agriculture, pest control is one of the important applications, because insect pests have become a threat to the global agriculture industry. IR are used routinely to prevent crop loss and to protect stored food commodities. Radio-sterilization and disinfestation treatments are commonly used procedures for insect pest control. From various studies on insect radio-sterilization and disinfestation, it has been established that compared to vertebrates' insects have high levels of radiation resistance. Therefore, to achieve adequate radio-sterilization/disinfestation; exposure to high doses of IR is necessary. However, studies over decades made a presumption that radiation resistance is general among insects. Recent studies have shown that some insect orders are having high IR resistance and some insect orders are sensitive to IR. These studies have clarified that radiation resistance is not uniform throughout insect class. The present review is an attempt to insight at the evolutionary profile of insect species studied for radio-sterilization and disinfestation treatment and are having the trait of radio-resistance. From various studies on insect radiation resistance and after phylogenetic analysis of insect species it appears that the evolutionary near species have drastically different levels of radio-resistance and trait of radiation resistance appears to be independent of insect evolution.

Background: The sustainable elimination of Triatoma infestans in the Gran Chaco region represents an enduring challenge. Following the limited effects of a routine pyrethroid insecticide spraying campaign conducted over 2011-2013 (first period) in Avia Terai, an endemic municipality with approximately 2300 houses, we implemented a rapid-impact intervention package to suppress house infestation across the urban-to-rural gradient over 2015-2019 (second period). Here, we assess their impacts and whether persisting infestations were associated with pyrethroid resistance., Methods: The 2011-2013 campaign achieved a limited detection and spray coverage across settings (< 68%), more so during the surveillance phase. Following community mobilization and school-based interventions, the 2015-2019 program assessed baseline house infestation using a stratified sampling strategy; sprayed all rural houses with suspension concentrate beta-cypermethrin, and selectively sprayed infested and adjacent houses in urban and peri-urban settings; and monitored house infestation and performed selective treatments over the follow-up., Results: Over the first period, house infestation returned to pre-intervention levels within 3-4 years. The adjusted relative odds of house infestation between 2011-2013 and 2015-2016 differed very little (adj. OR: 1.17, 95% CI 0.91-1.51). Over the second period, infestation decreased significantly between 0 and 1 year post-spraying (YPS) (adj. OR: 0.36, 95% CI 0.28-0.46), with heterogeneous effects across the gradient. Mean bug abundance also dropped between 0 and 1 YPS and thereafter remained stable in rural and peri-urban areas. Using multiple regression models, house infestation and bug abundance at 1 YPS were 3-4 times higher if the house had been infested before treatment, or was scored as high-risk or non-participating. No low-risk house was ever infested. Persistent foci over two successive surveys increased from 30.0 to 59.3% across the gradient. Infestation was more concentrated in peridomestic rather than domestic habitats. Discriminating-dose bioassays showed incipient or moderate pyrethroid resistance in 7% of 28 triatomine populations collected over 2015-2016 and in 83% of 52 post-spraying populations., Conclusions: The intervention package was substantially more effective than the routine insecticide spraying campaign, though the effects were lower than predicted due to unexpected incipient or moderate pyrethroid resistance. Increased awareness and diagnosis of vector control failures in the Gran Chaco, including appropriate remedial actions, are greatly needed., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: In 2005, Bangladesh, India and Nepal agreed to eliminate visceral leishmaniasis (VL) as a public health problem. The approach to this was through improved case detection and treatment, and controlling transmission by the sand fly vector Phlebotomus argentipes, with indoor residual spraying (IRS) of insecticide. Initially, India applied DDT with stirrup pumps for IRS, however, this did not reduce transmission. After 2015 onwards, the pyrethroid alpha-cypermethrin was applied with compression pumps, and entomological surveillance was initiated in 2016., Methods: Eight sentinel sites were established in the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. IRS coverage was monitored by household survey, quality of insecticide application was measured by HPLC, presence and abundance of the VL vector was monitored by CDC light traps, insecticide resistance was measured with WHO diagnostic assays and case incidence was determined from the VL case register KAMIS., Results: Complete treatment of houses with IRS increased across all sites from 57% in 2016 to 70% of houses in 2019, rising to >80% if partial house IRS coverage is included (except West Bengal). The quality of insecticide application has improved compared to previous studies, average doses of insecticide on filters papers ranged from 1.52 times the target dose of 25mg/m2 alpha-cypermethrin in 2019 to 1.67 times in 2018. Resistance to DDT has continued to increase, but the vector was not resistant to carbamates, organophosphates or pyrethroids. The annual and seasonal abundance of P. argentipes declined between 2016 to 2019 with an overall infection rate of 0.03%. This was associated with a decline in VL incidence for the blocks represented by the sentinel sites from 1.16 per 10,000 population in 2016 to 0.51 per 10,000 in 2019., Conclusion: Through effective case detection and management reducing the infection reservoirs for P. argentipes in the human population combined with IRS keeping P. argentipes abundance and infectivity low has reduced VL transmission. This combination of effective case management and vector control has now brought India within reach of the VL elimination targets., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objectives. To compare outcomes when pesticides are used to control bed bugs by professionals and nonprofessionals. Methods. All US National Pesticide Information Center inquiries from 2013 to 2017 were assessed to identify scenarios involving bed bugs and pesticide applications. Cases were evaluated with respect to types of applicators, misapplications, and human pesticide exposures. Results. Misapplications were more than twice as likely to be reported in cases involving nonprofessional applications (14%) as in cases involving professional applications (5%). Human exposures to pesticides were reported more often when pesticides were misapplied (70%) than when there were no apparent misapplications (31%). Conclusions. Both professionals and nonprofessionals may misuse pesticides to control bed bugs, which may increase the risks of exposure and adverse outcomes. Policy interventions may reduce pesticide incidents related to bed bug control by promoting professional involvement and adherence to product label instructions.

Background: Indoor residual spraying (IRS) is the mainstay for vector control intervention of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in India. Little is known on the control effects of IRS on different household types. Here, we assessed if IRS with insecticides has an equal residual and interventional effect on all household types in a village. We also developed a combined spatial-risk map and a sand fly, Phlebotomus argentipes density analytical model based on household characteristics, insecticide susceptibility and IRS-status to explore the spatio-temporal distributions of the vector at a micro-scale level., Methods: This study was carried out in two villages of Mahnar block in Vaishali district, Bihar. IRS using two insecticides [dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT 50%) and synthetic pyrethroid (SP 5%)] was evaluated for VL-vector (P. argentipes) control. Temporal residual efficacy of the insecticides on different wall-surface types was evaluated using the cone-bioassay technique according to WHO guidelines. Insecticide susceptibility of local P. argentipes was explored using the tube-bioassay method. Pre- and post-IRS sand fly densities were monitored in human dwellings and animal shelters using Centers for Disease Control light-traps installed between 18:00-6:00 h. A best-fit model for sand fly density analysis was developed using multiple logistic regression analysis. Geographical information system based spatial analysis techniques were employed to map the household type distribution of insecticide susceptibility of the vector, and IRS-status of the households to interpret the spatio-temporal distributions of P. argentipes., Results: Phlebotomus argentipes was highly susceptible to SP (100%) but showed high resistance to DDT with a 49.1% mortality rate. SP-IRS has been reported as having better community acceptance than DDT-IRS in all household types. Residual efficacies were varied between wall-surfaces; both insecticides failed to achieve the duration of IRS effectiveness recommended by the WHO. Reduction in P. argentipes counts due to SP-IRS was higher than DDT-IRS between household groups (i.e. sprayed and sentinel), in all intervals post-IRS. Combined spatial risk-maps revealed a better control effect of SP-IRS on sand flies than DDT-IRS in all household types risk-zones. The multilevel logistic regression analysis explored five risk-factors that were strongly associated with the density of P. argentipes., Conclusions: The results contribute to furthering current understanding of IRS-practices for control of visceral leishmaniasis in endemic Bihar, which may help in future actions for improvements.

Tsetse flies are vectors of parasites that cause diseases responsible for significant economic losses and health issues in sub-Saharan Africa, including sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in domestic animals. Efficient vector-control campaigns require good knowledge of the demographic parameters of the targeted populations. In the last decade, population genetics emerged as a convenient way to measure population densities and dispersal in tsetse flies. Here, by revealing a strong negative density-dependent dispersal in two dimensions, we suggest that control campaigns might unleash dispersal from untreated areas. If confirmed by direct measurement of dispersal before and after control campaigns, area-wide and/or sequential treatments of neighboring sites will be necessary to prevent this issue., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Bed bugs have reemerged in the United States and worldwide over recent decades, presenting a major challenge to both public health practitioners and housing authorities. A number of municipalities have proposed or initiated policies to stem the bed bug epidemic, but little guidance is available to evaluate them. One contentious policy is disclosure, whereby landlords are obligated to notify potential tenants of current or prior bed bug infestations. Aimed to protect tenants from leasing an infested rental unit, disclosure also creates a kind of quarantine, partially and temporarily removing infested units from the market. Here, we develop a mathematical model for the spread of bed bugs in a generalized rental market, calibrate it to parameters of bed bug dispersion and housing turnover, and use it to evaluate the costs and benefits of disclosure policies to landlords. We find disclosure to be an effective control policy to curb infestation prevalence. Over the short term (within 5 years), disclosure policies result in modest increases in cost to landlords, while over the long term, reductions of infestation prevalence lead, on average, to savings. These results are insensitive to different assumptions regarding the prevalence of infestation, rate of introduction of bed bugs from other municipalities, and the strength of the quarantine effect created by disclosure. Beyond its application to bed bugs, our model offers a framework to evaluate policies to curtail the spread of household pests and is appropriate for systems in which spillover effects result in highly nonlinear cost-benefit relationships., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2019 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.)

Current assessments from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency suggest that some current insecticides may be lost or severely restricted in the near future. An experiment was conducted from 2014 to 2015 at two locations in Mississippi to determine the impact of losses of insecticide classes on integrated pest management of insect pests in cotton. The treatments included cotton treated with all available classes of insecticides, cotton treated with all classes except neonicotinoids, cotton treated with all classes except pyrethroids, cotton treated with all classes except carbamates and organophosphates, and an untreated control. Plots were scouted weekly and insecticide applications were made with the most efficacious and economical insecticides for each treatment when that treatment reached threshold for a particular insect pest(s). The primary insects at both locations were tobacco thrips and tarnished plant bugs. Thrips pressure was similar at both locations and generally showed that all insecticide treatments provided a similar level of protection compared with the untreated control. At the Stoneville location where tarnished plant bug pressure was greatest, cotton yields and economic returns differed between plots where all classes of insecticides were applied compared with the untreated control and where neonicotinoids were excluded. However, in Starkville where tarnished plant bug pressure was less, there were no differences among treatments. Although yield and economic returns were similar in high tarnished plant bug pressure areas when using all classes compared with managing without pyrethroids or organophosphates, a rotation among all insecticide classes should be beneficial for resistance management in Mid-South cotton production.

Background: This study focused on the savannah tsetse species Glossina swynnertoni and G. morsitans centralis, both efficient vectors of human and animal trypanosomiasis in, respectively, East and Central Africa. The aim was to develop long-lasting, practical and cost-effective visually attractive devices that induce the strongest landing responses in these two species for use as insecticide-impregnated tools in population suppression., Methods and Findings: Trials were conducted in different seasons and years in Tanzania (G. swynnertoni) and in Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC, G. m. centralis) to measure the performance of traps (pyramidal and epsilon) and targets of different sizes, shapes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used to catch flies landing on devices at the remote locations to compare tsetse-landing efficiencies. Landing rates by G. m. centralis in both Angola and the DRC were highest on blue-black 1 m2 oblong and 0.5 m2 square and oblong targets but were not significantly different from landings on the pyramidal trap. Landings by G. swynnertoni on 0.5 m2 blue-black oblong targets were likewise not significantly lower than on equivalent 1 m2 square targets. The length of target horizontal edge was closely correlated with landing rate. Blue-black 0.5 m2 targets performed better than equivalents in all-blue for both G. swynnertoni and G. m. centralis, although not consistently. Baiting with chemicals increased the proportion of G. m. centralis entering pyramidal traps., Conclusions: This study confirms earlier findings on G. swynnertoni that smaller visual targets, down to 0.5 m2, would be as efficient as using 1 m2 targets for population management of this species. This is also the case for G. m. centralis. An insecticide-impregnated pyramidal trap would also constitute an effective control device for G. m. centralis., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Chemical control with pyrethroid insecticides has been effective in reducing endemic areas of distribution of Triatoma infestans in the Southern Cone, as well as Bolivia; this had considerably reduced the infestation of households in a large part of the territory. Nowadays, areas such as the Chaco and the Inter-Andean Valleys are regions where the reach of vector control strategies is becoming limited, and infestations of insecticide-treated households are reported more often. The objective of this study was to determine if the persistence of T. infestans stems from changes in the susceptibility of its toxicological profile in four communities in the municipality of Toro Toro, Potosi, Bolivia., Methods: Susceptibility to deltamethrin of wild and domestic populations of T. infestans was evaluated in two stages (16 populations before and 13 populations after spraying) among DUs (structures in the intra- and peridomicile) and wild ecotopes, in four communities. Serial dilutions of deltamethrin in acetone (0.2 μl) were applied topically on standardized first-stage nymphs. Dose-response results were analyzed with the software PoloPlus and the relationships between lethal doses (LD) and resistance ratios (RR 50 ) were determined., Results: Different degrees of RR 50 were detected among the populations before and after spraying (25.66-54.70 and 21.91-40.67, respectively), as well as in different ecotopes within a DU (DU JC 3, 28.06-36.13, in mixed structures of corrals and chicken coops; and DU JG 3, 46.27-25.70, in kitchen roofs), or in the wild environment of the community JG Sil (29.21-40.67). The mortality of insects undergoing diagnostic dose (DD) was never higher than 34%., Conclusion: The results obtained in this study showed resistance of T. infestans to deltamethrin in four communities, hence the complexity of this phenomenon is not only limited to the level of communities, but also applies to the microgeographical level, as in different ecotopes present within the DUs. This phenomenon should be considered while planning the activities of control programs.

Insecticide resistance is a broadly recognized ecological backlash resulting from insecticide use and is widely reported among arthropod pest species with well-recognized underlying mechanisms and consequences. Nonetheless, insecticide resistance is the subject of evolving conceptual views that introduces a different concept useful if recognized in its own right - the risk or likelihood of control failure. Here we suggest an experimental approach to assess the likelihood of control failure of an insecticide allowing for consistent decision-making regarding management of insecticide resistance. We also challenge the current emphasis on limited spatial sampling of arthropod populations for resistance diagnosis in favor of comprehensive spatial sampling. This necessarily requires larger population sampling - aiming to use spatial analysis in area-wide surveys - to recognize focal points of insecticide resistance and/or control failure that will better direct management efforts. The continuous geographical scale of such surveys will depend on the arthropod pest species, the pattern of insecticide use and many other potential factors. Regardless, distance dependence among sampling sites should still hold, following the maxim that the closer two things are, the more they resemble each other, which is the basis of Tobler's First Law of Geography. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Introduction:: The Housing Improvement Program for Chagas Disease Control (HIPCDC) was established in 2001 in Northwestern Rio Grande do Sul State, aiming to improve the conditions of the domiciliary and peridomiciliary environments to make them resistant to triatomine colonization. This study aimed to assess the impact of the HIPCDC on triatomine control by developing local population and authority awareness on the issue., Methods:: The study was conducted by means of questionnaires applied to local authorities and the program beneficiaries. Three municipalities - Ajuricaba, Coronel Barros, and Crissiumal - were visited., Results:: A program coordinator from each municipality and 62 individuals from selected households were interviewed. The authorities reported difficulties in the implementation of the program due to differences between the project development period and financial resource availability, in addition to a lack of understanding by the community not included in the program. As for the houses, most improvements were made in the peridomiciliary environments; moreover, construction of 4 new residences, as well as the renovation of others, was also reported. Regarding suggestions to the program, requests for better planning (44.9%) and renovation quality (36.7%) were highlighted. With reference to the presence of triatomine bugs, prior to the HIPCDC adaptations, 12.9% of the respondents reported coming across at least one specimen at home, as compared to 22.6% who found these insects in peridomiciliary areas., Conclusions:: Despite reports of difficulties in carrying out the HIPCDC, there was an improvement in the housing conditions, with no triatomine occurrence reports after the program implementation.

The impact of deltamethrin-impregnated cloth targets on Stegomyia polynesiensis (= Aedes polynesiensis) (Marks) (Diptera: Culicidae) was assessed under laboratory and semi-field settings in French Polynesia. Stegomyia polynesiensis females were released into small laboratory cages and large field cages containing either a deltamethrin-treated or an untreated navy blue cloth, and mosquito knock-down and mortality were assessed. The 24-h mortality rate in mosquitoes exposed to the insecticide-treated target in small cages was 98.0%. These mosquitoes also demonstrated significantly higher levels of knock-down than those exposed to the untreated target. Mortality in field cages was assessed at 24 and 48 h. The 24-h mortality rate in mosquitoes exposed to the control target was 31.2%, whereas that in those exposed to the deltamethrin-treated target was 54.3%. The 48-h mortality rate was also elevated in mosquitoes exposed to the deltamethrin-treated target, but this result did not differ significantly from that observed in mosquitoes exposed to the control target. The significant suppression of female S. polynesiensis by deltamethrin-treated resting targets in this study indicates that these targets could play a role in the control of an important disease vector in the South Pacific region., (© 2016 The Royal Entomological Society.)

Phlebotominae are the vectors of Leishmania parasites. It is important to have available surveillance and collection methods for the sand fly vectors. The objectives of the present study were to evaluate and compare traps for the collection of sand fly species and to analyze trap catches along months and transects. Field evaluations over a year were conducted in an endemic area of leishmaniasis in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. A randomized-block design was implemented in study area with tropical rainforest vegetation. The study design utilized 4 transects with 11 trap types: 1) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light trap with incandescent bulb (CDC-I), 2) CDC light trap with blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) (CDC-B), 3) CDC light trap with white LEDs (CDC-W), 4) CDC light trap with red LEDs (CDC-R), 5) CDC light trap with green LEDs (CDC-G), 6) Disney trap, 7) Disney trap with white LEDs, 8) sticky panels, 9) sticky panels with white LEDs, 10) delta-like trap, and 11) delta-like trap with white LEDs. A total of 1,014 specimens of 13 species and 2 genera (Lutzomyia and Brumptomyia) were collected. There were significant differences in the mean number of sand flies caught with the 11 traps; CDC-I was (P  =  0.0000) more effective than the other traps. Other traps exhibited the following results: CDC-W (17.46%), CDC-B (15.68%), CDC-G (14.89%), and CDC-R (14.30%). The relative abundance of different species varied according to trap types used, and the CDC-I trap attracted more specimens of the known vectors of Leishmania spp., such as like Lutzomyia cruciata, Lu. shannoni, and Lu. ovallesi. Disney trap captured more specimens of Lu. olmeca olmeca. Based on abundance and number of species, CDC light traps and Disney traps appeared to be good candidates for use in vector surveillance programs in this endemic area of Mexico.

Background: Leishmaniasis, visceral and cutaneous, is seen in Turkey and has both public and veterinary importance. So far, four Leishmania species and their vectors have been detected in Turkey. Vector control is essential in endemic areas and several personal protection methods are available including long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). In this study, we aimed to measure the effects of usage and storage conditions on LLINs in a village-scale study., Methods: Olyset(®) Plus bed nets were set up in different climatic conditions (rain, exposed to sunlight and humidity) and collected after 6 months. The effectiveness of bed nets were tested by WHO's cone test method using wild-caught sand flies., Results: Bed nets, which were placed directly exposed to sunlight (A1, A2) showed lower (17.2%) knock down effect compared to bed nets placed indoors (A3, B1). Twenty-four hour mortality was 100% for the five study groups (A2, A3, B1, C1, C2) whereas group A1 was found to have a lower mortality rate (44.4%)., Conclusion: Bed nets need to avoid direct exposure to sunlight. When used and stored in appropriate conditions (cool, well-ventilated place away from sunlight) they can be used as an effective vector control tool in endemic areas., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The paper is aimed to establish a method of residue analysis for thiamethoxam and to study its degradation dynamic and final residue and its standard of safe application of thiamethoxam on Lonicera japonica. Samples extracted with methanol by ultrasonication were purified with dichloromethane by liquid-liquid extraction and SPE column and analysed by HPLC-UV. The results showed that average rate was 84.91%-94.44% and RSD 1.74%-4.96% with addition of thiamethoxam in respectively diverse concentration, which meets inspection requirement of pesticide residue. Two kinds of dosages of thiamethoxam were treated- varying from recommended dosage (90 g x hm(-2)) to high dosage (135 g x hm(-2)), Results of two years test showed that thiamethoxam was degraded more than 90% seven days after application and the half - life period of thiamethoxam was 1.54-1.66 d. The digestion rate of thiamethoxam was fast in the L. japonica. The recommended MRL of thiamethoxam in the L. japonica is 0.1 mg x kg(-1), the dosage of 25% thiamethoxam WDG from 90-135 g x hm(-2) is sprayed less than three times a year on L. japonica and 14 days is proposed for the safety interval of the last pesticide application's and harvest's date.

Background: All previously and currently used methods for effectiveness evaluation of control measures for the diamondback moth (DBM) do not simultaneously take the actual damage and population size into consideration. Here, we propose a new method, the cumulative damage index method, in which the number of larvae and their amount of food consumption are simultaneously included in the calculation of the theoretical cumulative damage index (T) and actual cumulative damage index (A). Evaluation was based on the reduced degree of damage calculated according to indexes T and A., Results: Based on the new method, the corrected effectiveness of the combined use of biological measures, chemical insecticides, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and P. xylostella granulosis virus (PxGV) on DBM was 35.85, 2.37, 12.50 and 11.77% respectively. Under the action of natural factors, the Population Developmental Index (I) of DBM was 5.1 ± 1.4; under the integrated actions of natural factors and these four types of measure, index I of DBM was 0.34 ± 0.1, 6.1 ± 1.5, 2.1 ± 0.5 and 1.1 ± 0.3 respectively. The sole effectiveness of Trichogramma spp. when integrated with other natural factors, integrated biological measures and chemical insecticides was 21.43 ± 1.69%, 45.27 ± 4.09% and 20.68 ± 2.60% respectively., Conclusions: There was some difference between the effectiveness evaluated by the new method and index I, and the actual damage caused by DBM could be reflected well by index A. The new method is more scientifically appropriate and practical for effectiveness evaluation than existing methods. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2014 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Background: Riverine species of tsetse are responsible for most human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) transmission and are also important vectors of animal trypanosomiasis. This study concerns the development of visual control devices for two such species, Glossina fuscipes fuscipes and Glossina tachinoides, at the eastern limits of their continental range. The goal was to determine the most long-lasting, practical and cost-effective visually attractive device that induces the strongest landing responses in these species for use as insecticide-impregnated tools in vector population suppression., Methods and Findings: Field trials were conducted in different seasons on G. f. fuscipes in Kenya, Ethiopia and the Sudan and on G. tachinoides in Ethiopia to measure the performance of traps and 2D targets of different sizes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used to enumerate flies at these remote locations to compare trapping efficiencies. The findings show that targets made from black and blue fabrics (either phthalogen or turquoise) covered with adhesive film render them equal to or more efficient than traps at capturing G. f. fuscipes and G. tachinoides. Biconical trap efficiency varied between 25% and 33% for the two species. Smaller 0.25 m×0.25 m phthalogen blue-black targets proved more efficient than the regular 1 m2 target for both species, by over six times for Glossina f. fuscipes and two times for G. tachinoides based on catches per m2. Overall, targets with a higher edge/surface area ratio were more efficient at capturing flies., Conclusions/significance: Taking into account practical considerations and fly preferences for edges and colours, we propose a 0.5×0.75 m blue-black target as a simple cost-effective device for management of G. f. fuscipes and G. tachinoides, impregnated with insecticide for control and covered with adhesive film for population sampling.

Although this study was originally designed to compare the efficacy of two different stable fly traps within 10 sites at a 12-ha zoological park, seasonal and spatial population distribution data were simultaneously collected. The two traps included an Alsynite fiberglass cylindrical trap (AFT) and a blue-black cloth target modified into a cylindrical trap (BCT). Both traps were covered with sticky sleeves to retain the attracted flies. Paired trap types were placed at sites that were 20-100 m apart. Distance between trap pairs within sites ranged from 1 to 2 m, and was limited by exhibit design and geography. Both trap types reflect/refract ultraviolet (UV) light which attracts adult S. calcitrans. During this 15-week study, AFTs captured significantly more stable flies than the BCTs at 8 of the 10 sites. Of the 12,557 stable flies found on the traps, 80% and 20% were captured by AFTs and BCTs, respectively. The most attractive trap site at the zoo was at the goat exhibit where most stable flies were consistently captured throughout the study. This exhibit was 100 m from the other exhibits, next to a small lake, and adjacent to a field containing pastured exotic ungulates, rhea and ostrich. Stable fly populations peaked in early June then slowly decreased as the last trapping date approached. We believe this to be the first seasonality data collected at a zoological park. Results demonstrate the use of urban zoos by stable flies and the need to develop environmentally friendly stable fly management systems for zoos., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) requires vast numbers of consistently high quality insects to be produced over long periods. Quality control (QC) procedures are critical to effective SIT, both providing quality assurance and warning of operational deficiencies. We here present a potential new QC assay for mass rearing of Queensland fruit flies (Bactrocera tryoni Froggatt) for SIT; locomotor activity monitoring. We investigated whether automated locomotor activity monitors (LAMs) that simply detect how often a fly passes an infrared sensor in a glass tube might provide similar insights but with much greater economy., Results: Activity levels were generally lower for females than for males, and declined over five days in the monitor for both sexes. Female activity levels were not affected by irradiation, but males irradiated at 60 or 70 Gy had reduced activity levels compared with unirradiated controls. We also found some evidence that mild heat shock of pupae results in adults with reduced activity., Conclusion: LAM offers a convenient, effective and economical assay to probe such changes., (© 2013 Society of Chemical Industry.)

In a recent article in the Reader's Opinion, advantages and disadvantages of the certification processes of interrupted Chagas disease transmission (American trypanosomiasis) by native vector were discussed. Such concept, accepted by those authors for the case of endemic situations with introduced vectors, has been built on a long and laborious process by endemic countries and Subregional Initiatives for Prevention, Control and Treatment of Chagas, with Technical Secretariat of the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization, to create a horizon target and goal to concentrate priorities and resource allocation and actions. With varying degrees of sucess, which are not replaceable for a certificate of good practice, has allowed during 23 years to safeguard the effective control of transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi not to hundreds of thousands, but millions of people at risk conditions, truly "the art of the possible."

Bluetongue (BT) is an important disease of ruminants which exhibits its most severe clinical signs on cattle and especially on certain breeds of sheep. The known vectors of BT are small insects of the genus Culicoides (Diptera; Ceratopogonidae). Two species from this genus - Culicoides imicola and Culicoides obsoletus - play the major role in the transmission of the disease in Europe. Several prophylactic methods are used to avoid transmission; however, an easy and cost-effective preventive technique would be very useful for the control of the Culicoides populations near the animals. In the present study, the insecticide effect of cypermethrin treated nets on a Culicoides population was evaluated. A polyethylene net sprayed with 1L cypermethrin solution (1%) surrounding a UV light suction trap was placed at a cattle farm in Majorca (Balearic Islands). Collections of Culicoides and other fauna from the trap and floor around the net were compared with a control. Results showed no significant differences in the collection of Culicoides midges between the insecticide-treated net and the control. However, significant differences were observed in the collection of the non-target fauna between the treated net and the control, indicating that the dose used in the present trial was enough to kill most of the arthropods that contacted the net. The reasons for these equivocal findings and means to improve this technique for the control of Culicoides midges are discussed., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Certifying the absence of Chagas disease transmission by native vectors lacks scientific grounds and weakens long-term control-surveillance systems to the detriment of people living under risk conditions. Instead, a regular "certification of good practice" (including vector control-surveillance, case detection/patient care and blood safety) could help achieve sustained disease control.

Introduction: In 2005 a visceral leishmaniasis (VL) elimination initiative was launched on the Indian subcontinent; important components of early case finding and treatment are entrusted to the primary health care system (PHC). In an earlier study in Bihar, India, we discovered some major shortcomings in implementation, in particular related to monitoring of treatment and treatment outcomes. These shortcomings could be addressed through involvement of village health workers. In the current study we assessed knowledge, attitude and practice of these village health workers in relation to VL. Main objective was to assess the feasibility of their involvement in VL control., Methods: We obtained a list of auxiliary nurses/midwives and accredited social health activists for the highly endemic district of Muzaffarpur. We randomly sampled 100 auxiliary nurses and 100 activists, who were visited in their homes for an interview. Questions were asked on knowledge, attitude and practice related to visceral leishmaniasis and to tuberculosis., Results: Auxiliary nurses and activists know the presenting symptoms of visceral leishmaniasis, they know how it is diagnosed but they are not aware of the recommended first-line treatment. Many are already involved in tuberculosis control and are very well aware of the treatment modalities of tuberculosis, but few are involved in control of visceral leishmaniasis control. They are well organised, have strong links to the primary healthcare system and are ready to get more involved in visceral leishmaniasis control., Conclusion: To ensure adequate monitoring of visceral leishmaniasis treatment and treatment outcomes, the control programme urgently needs to consider involving auxiliary nurses and activists., (© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Background: Here we set out to standardize long-lasting, visually-attractive devices for Glossina swynnertoni, a vector of both human and animal trypanosomiasis in open savannah in Tanzania and Kenya, and in neighbouring conservation areas used by pastoralists. The goal was to determine the most practical device/material that would induce the strongest landing response in G. swynnertoni for use in area-wide population suppression of this fly with insecticide-impregnated devices., Methods and Findings: Trials were conducted in wet and dry seasons in the Serengeti and Maasai Mara to measure the performance of traps and targets of different sizes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used as a simple enumerator at these remote locations to compare trapping efficiencies of devices. Independent of season or presence of chemical baits, targets in phthalogen blue or turquoise blue cloth with adhesive film were the best devices for capturing G. swynnertoni in all situations, catching up to 19 times more flies than pyramidal traps. Baiting with chemicals did not affect the relative performance of devices. Fly landings were two times higher on 1 m(2) blue-black targets as on pyramidal traps when equivalent areas of both were covered with adhesive film. Landings on 1 m(2) blue-black targets were compared to those on smaller phthalogen blue 0.5 m(2) all-blue or blue-black-blue cloth targets, and to landings on all-blue plastic 0.32-0.47 m(2) leg panels painted in phthalogen blue. These smaller targets and leg panels captured equivalent numbers of G. swynnertoni per unit area as bigger targets., Conclusions: Leg panels and 0.5 m(2) cloth targets show promise as cost effective devices for management of G. swynnertoni as they can be used for both control (insecticide-impregnated cloth) and for sampling (rigid plastic with insect glue or adhesive film) of populations.

Background: A dramatic increase of reported bedbug (Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus) infestations has been observed worldwide over the past decade. Bedbug infestations have also been detected across a wide range of travel accommodations, regardless of their comfort and hygiene levels. Travelers are increasingly exposed to the risks of bedbug bites, infestation of personal belongings, and subsequent contamination of newly visited accommodations and their homes., Methods: We searched Medline publications via the PubMed database. National bedbug recommendations, textbooks, newspapers, and Centers for Disease Control websites were also searched manually., Discussion: To detect infested sites, avoid or limit bedbug bites, and reduce the risk of contaminating one's belongings and home, bedbug biology and ecology must be understood. A detailed search of their most classic hiding niches is a key to finding adult bedbugs, nymphs, eggs, and feces or traces of blood from crushed bedbugs. Locally, bedbugs move by active displacement to feed (bite) during the night. Bed, mattress, sofa, and/or curtains are the most frequently infested places. If you find bedbugs, change your room or, even better, the hotel. Otherwise, travelers should follow recommendations for avoiding bedbugs and their bites during the night and apply certain simple rules to avoid infesting other sites or their home., Conclusion: Travelers exposed to bedbugs can minimize the risks of bites and infestation of their belongings, and must also do their civic duty to avoid contributing to the subsequent contamination of other hotels and, finally, home., (© 2012 International Society of Travel Medicine.)

A global resurgence of bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) has led to renewed scientific interest in these insects. The current bed bug upsurge appears to have started almost synchronously in the late 1990 s in Europe, the U.S.A. and Australia. Several factors have led to this situation, with resistance to applied insecticides making a significant contribution. With a growing number of insecticides (DDT, carbamates, organophosphates etc.) being no longer available as a result of regulatory restrictions, the mainstay chemistry used for bed bug control over the past few decades has been the pyrethroid insecticides. With reports of increasing tolerance to pyrethroids leading to control failures on the rise, containing and eradicating bed bugs is proving to be a difficult task. Consequently, several recent studies have focused on determining the mode of action of pyrethroid resistance in bed bug populations sourced from different locations. Correct identification of the factor(s) responsible for the increasing resistance is critical to the development of effective management strategies, which need to be based, wherever possible, on firm scientific evidence. Here we review the literature on this topic, highlighting the mechanisms thought to be involved and the problems currently faced by pest control professionals in dealing with a developing pandemic., (© 2012 Rothamsted Research. Medical and Veterinary Entomology © 2012 The Royal Entomological Society.)

Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a potentially life-threatening illness caused by the protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi. The main mode of transmission of this disease in endemic areas is through an insect vector called triatomine bug. Triatomines become infected with T. cruzi by feeding blood of an infected person or animal. Chagas disease is considered the most important vector borne infection in Latin America. It is estimated that between 16 and 18 millions of persons are infected with T. cruzi, and at least 20,000 deaths each year. In this work we formulate a model for the transmission of this infection among humans, vectors and domestic mammals. Our main objective is to assess the effectiveness of Chagas disease control measures. For this, we do sensitivity analysis of the basic reproductive number R₀ and the endemic proportions with respect to epidemiological and demographic parameters., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Here we describe field trials designed to standardize tools for the control of Glossina tachinoides, G. palpalis gambiensis and G.morsitans submorsitans in West Africa based on existing trap/target/bait technology. Blue and black biconical and monoconical traps and 1 m(2) targets were made in either phthalogen blue cotton, phthalogen blue cotton/polyester or turquoise blue polyester/viscose (all with a peak reflectance between 450-480 nm) and a black polyester. Because targets were covered in adhesive film, they proved to be significantly better trapping devices than either of the two trap types for all three species (up to 14 times more for G. tachinoides, 10 times more for G. palpalis gambiensis, and 6.5 times for G. morsitans submorsitans). The relative performance of the devices in the three blue cloths tested was the same when unbaited or baited with a mixture of phenols, 1-octen-3-ol and acetone. Since insecticide-impregnated devices act via contact with flies, we enumerated which device (traps or targets) served as the best object for flies to land on by also covering the cloth parts of traps with adhesive film. Despite the fact that the biconical trap proved to be the best landing device for the three species, the difference over the target (20-30%) was not significant. This experiment also allowed an estimation of trap efficiency, i.e. the proportion of flies landing on a trap that are caught in its cage. A low overall efficiency of the biconical or monoconical traps of between 11-24% was recorded for all three species. These results show that targets can be used as practical devices for population suppression of the three species studied. Biconical traps can be used for population monitoring, but a correction factor of 5-10 fold needs to be applied to captures to compensate for the poor trapping efficiency of this device for the three species.

Background: Visceral leishmaniasis is the world' second largest vector-borne parasitic killer and a neglected tropical disease, prevalent in poor communities. Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LNs) are a low cost proven vector intervention method for malaria control; however, their effectiveness against visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is unknown. This study quantified the effect of LNs on exposure to the sand fly vector of VL in India and Nepal during a two year community intervention trial., Methods: As part of a paired-cluster randomized controlled clinical trial in VL-endemic regions of India and Nepal we tested the effect of LNs on sand fly biting by measuring the antibody response of subjects to the saliva of Leishmania donovani vector Phlebotomus argentipes and the sympatric (non-vector) Phlebotomus papatasi. Fifteen to 20 individuals above 15 years of age from 26 VL endemic clusters were asked to provide a blood sample at baseline, 12 and 24 months post-intervention., Results: A total of 305 individuals were included in the study, 68 participants provided two blood samples and 237 gave three samples. A random effect linear regression model showed that cluster-wide distribution of LNs reduced exposure to P. argentipes by 12% at 12 months (effect 0.88; 95% CI 0.83-0.94) and 9% at 24 months (effect 0.91; 95% CI 0.80-1.02) in the intervention group compared to control adjusting for baseline values and pair. Similar results were obtained for P. papatasi., Conclusions: This trial provides evidence that LNs have a limited effect on sand fly exposure in VL endemic communities in India and Nepal and supports the use of sand fly saliva antibodies as a marker to evaluate vector control interventions.

Following the increasing international phasing out of methyl bromide for quarantine purposes, the development of alternative treatments for timber pests becomes imperative. The international accreditation of new quarantine treatments requires verification standards that give confidence in the effectiveness of a treatment. Probit-9 mortality is a standard for treatment effectiveness that has its origin in fruit fly research, and has been adopted by the United States Department of Agriculture for fruit flies and several other pests. Following this, the probit-9 standard has been adopted as a benchmark for many quarantine treatments worldwide. This article discusses aspects of the application of this concept for a range of timber pests. Problematic issues include the often small pest populations available for testing, the limits of modeling pest responses to a treatment in the absence of sufficient numbers for treatment verification, the species diversity of pests and host materials and the physical and chemical conditions of host material or treatment conditions. Where treatment verification by killing large numbers of individuals is impossible, data collected from small populations or under specific conditions must be interpreted with caution. We discuss possible alternative approaches to probit-9 as a treatment efficacy standard.

Although, when applied under controlled conditions in India and Nepal, indoor residual spraying (IRS) has been found to reduce sandfly densities significantly, it is not known if IRS will be as effective when applied generally in these countries, via the national programmes for the elimination of visceral leishmaniasis. The potential benefits and limitations of national IRS programmes for the control of sandflies were therefore evaluated in the districts of Vaishali (in the Indian state of Bihar), Sarlahi (in Nepal) and Sunsari (also in Nepal). The use of technical guidelines, levels of knowledge and skills related to spraying operations, insecticide bio-availability on the sprayed surfaces, concentrations of the insecticide on the walls of sprayed houses, insecticide resistance, and the effectiveness of spraying, in terms of reducing sandfly densities within sprayed houses (compared with those found in unsprayed sentinel houses or control villages) were all explored. It was observed that IRS programme managers, at district and subdistrict levels in India and Nepal, used the relevant technical guidelines and were familiar with the procedures for IRS operation. The performance of the spraying activities, however, showed important deficiencies. The results of bio-assays and the chemical analysis of samples from sprayed walls indicated substandard spraying and suboptimal concentrations of insecticide on sprayed surfaces. This was particularly obvious at one of the Nepali study sites (Sunsari district), where no significant vector reduction was achieved. Sandfly resistance to the insecticide used in India (DDT) was widespread but the potential vectors in Nepal remained very susceptible towards a pyrethroid similar to the one used there. The overall short-term effectiveness of IRS was found to be satisfactory in two of the three study sites (in terms of reduction in the densities of the sandfly vectors). Unfortunately, the medium-term evaluation, conducted 5 months after spraying, was probably made invalid by flooding or lime plastering in the study areas. Preparation for, and the monitoring of, the IRS operations against sandfly populations in India and Nepal need to be improved.

The increasing incidence and geographic expansion of dengue suggest limitations of vector-control operations. We undertook an analysis of services with two methods: a systematic literature review; and case studies (stakeholder interviews, questionnaires) in Brazil, Guatemala, The Philippines and Viet Nam. In the systematic literature review there were only a few studies (strict criteria, 9 studies; less strict criteria, a further 16 studies and 3 guidelines). Of the 9 studies, 3 showed little change of control operations over time but did show strategic changes (decentralisation, intersectoral collaboration). Staffing levels, capacity building, management and organisation, funding and community engagement were insufficient. The case studies confirmed most of this information: (1) a lack of personnel (entomologists, social scientists, operational vector-control staff); (2) a lack of technical expertise at decentralised levels of services; (3) insufficient budgets; (4) inadequate geographical coverage; (5) interventions relying mostly on insecticides; (6) difficulties in engaging communities; (7) little capacity building; (8) almost no monitoring and evaluation. Stakeholders' doubts about service effectiveness were widespread, but interventions were assumed to be effective with increased resources. The analysis underlined the need for: operational standards; evidence-based selection/delivery of combinations of interventions; development/application of monitoring and evaluation tools; needs-driven capacity building., (2009 Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Four housekeeping genes named Lbbeta-Actin1, Lbbeta-Actin2, Lbalpha-Tubulin, and LbGapdh were cloned from Liposcelis bostrychophila using the combined techniques of reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) with rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The GenBank accession numbers were FJ196622, FJ447483, FJ595242, and FJ595241, respectively. The full-length cDNA of Lbbeta-Actin1 was a 1,772 bp sequence with an open reading frame (ORF) encoded 376 amino acids, while Lbbeta-Actin2 was 1,350 bp in length containing an ORF encoded 376 amino acids. Furthermore, the 1,565 bp cDNA of Lbalpha-Tubulin had an ORF of 1,350 bp encoding 450 amino acids. And LbGapdh possessed an ORF of 333 amino acids. Sequences analysis and phylogenetic trees generated from the nucleotide sequences of their coding regions revealed a relationship that was closer to other insects than to mammals. The four genes together with 18S rRNA were quantified for transcription stability in L. bostrychophila, and the geNorm software ranked from the most to least were Lbbeta-Actin1 > LbGapdh > Lbalpha-Tubulin > Lbbeta-Actin2 > Lb18S rRNA for deltamethrin induction, while ranked Lbbeta-Actin1 > Lbalpha-Tubulin > Lbbeta-Actin2 > LbGapdh > Lb18S rRNA for the different developmental stages.

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are involved in the transmission of a variety of pathogens, the economically most important being the orbiviruses that cause bluetongue and African horse sickness; both of which have been shown to be multi-vector diseases. The identification of all potential vectors will be crucial for the implementation of integrated control measures and disease risk analysis. The primary monitoring tools used for the collection of Culicoides midges are various models of suction light traps. In order to facilitate comparison of data between laboratories the efficiency of five traps (Onderstepoort, Rieb, mini-CDC, Pirbright, BG-sentinel), used at present and in the past in Europe, was compared in the field in South Africa. Comparisons were done either in three replicates of a 4x4 or two replicates of a 5x5 randomized Latin square design. The Onderstepoort trap collected significantly more Culicoides midges than the other traps. Relatively small but statistically significant differences were found in the species composition, parous rates, sex ratios as well as the ratio of Culicoides midges to other insects, as determined by the different traps. It will be important to determine the significance and underlying causes for these differences.

Wood packaging material (WPM) is a major pathway for international movement of bark- and wood-infesting insects. ISPM 15, the first international standard for treating WPM, was adopted in 2002 and first implemented in the United States in 2006. ISPM 15 allows bark to remain on WPM after treatment, raising concerns that insects could infest after treatment, especially if bark were present. We conducted field studies to evaluate insect infestation of green logs and lumber with varying amounts of bark after heat treatment. In a log study, Cerambycidae and Scolytinae (ambrosia beetles and bark beetles) readily infested and developed in logs with bark after heat treatment. In a lumber study, Cerambycidae and bark beetles laid eggs in all sizes of bark patches tested (approximately 25, 100, 250, and 1,000 cm2) after heat treatment but did not infest control or heat-treated lumber without bark. Cerambycidae completed development only in boards with bark patches of 1,000 cm2, whereas bark beetles completed development on patches of 100, 250, and 1,000 cm2. Survival of bark beetles was greater in square patches (10 by 10 cm) versus rectangular patches (2.5 by 40 cm) of the same surface area (100 cm2). In surveys at six U.S. ports in 2006, 9.4% of 5,945 ISPM 15-marked WPM items contained bark, and 1.2% of 564 ISPM 15-marked WPM items with bark contained live insects of quarantine significance under the bark. It was not possible to determine whether the presence of live insects represented treatment failure or infestation after treatment.

Western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), is an economically important pest of a wide range of crops grown throughout the world. Insecticide resistance has been documented in many populations of WFT. Biological and behavioural characteristics and pest management practices that promote insecticide resistance are discussed. In addition, an overview is provided of the development of insecticide resistance in F. occidentalis populations and the resistance mechanisms involved. Owing to widespread resistance to most conventional insecticides, a new approach to insecticide resistance management (IRM) of F. occidentalis is needed. The IRM strategy proposed consists of two parts. Firstly, a general strategy to minimise the use of insecticides in order to reduce selection pressure. Secondly, a strategy designed to avoid selection of resistance mechanisms, considering cross-resistance patterns and resistance mechanisms., (Copyright (c) 2008 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Background: A wide range of methods has been used for monitoring resistance in Cydia pomonella L. However, the results from specific tests are not always concordant and they generate doubts over the extent to which the data represent the field situation. Therefore, the variability in the expression of resistance mechanisms and in resistance ratios between developmental stages and their reliability in a field situation were studied., Results: Neonate larvae showed the highest insecticide resistance, except to spinosad. Resistance ratios were from 2 to 9.5, depending on the insecticide and the strain tested, when compared with the susceptible strain. Spinosad exhibited the highest resistance ratio for diapausing larvae (4.4, 12.2 and 4.4 for Raz, Rdfb and RDelta strains, respectively). Enzymatic ratios were higher in adults than in neonates or diapausing larvae, and the highest enzymatic ratios were observed for mixed-function oxidases (7.3-36.7 for adults of resistant strains)., Conclusions: The sensitivity of different instars depends on the insecticides used, and there is a differential expression of resistance mechanisms between stages. For the population considered in this study, tests on neonates provided the most consistent results to the field situation, but adult response to chlorpyrifos-ethyl and azinphos-methyl in the laboratory was also consistent with the field results.

With nuisance mosquito species, the goal of integrated pest management is to keep mosquito density below a tolerance level that is often set by economic, ecological, and political factors. This study compares actual human annoyance, as measured by a phone survey, with several measures of mosquito abundance, in order to determine a threshold that is both relevant and practical. The efficiency of CO2-baited traps, container index (CI), and oviposition traps for monitoring Aedes albopictus, and CO2-baited traps for monitoring Aedes caspius, was evaluated. CO2-baited traps were confirmed to be of low efficiency in Ae. albopictus collection, while correlation matrices showed a good relationship between CI and the number of eggs collected (R = 0.91), and between number of eggs and phone-survey nuisance level estimates (R = 0.88). Correlation between CI and phone-survey nuisance levels was slightly lower (R = 0.78). We found a close relationship between the nuisance level declared by residents and mosquito captures obtained with CO2-baited traps (Ae. caspius) and ovitraps (Ae. albopictus). An equation is presented to estimate annoyance according to dwelling characteristics and to the presence of children in the family.

Although fruit fly host status determination/designation lies at the heart of strategic decisions on national and international trade of fruit and vegetables, all attempts thus far to define host plant status have been contentious and as a result long-standing disputes between commercial partners throughout the world have lingered over decades. Part of the problem is that too little effort has been devoted to understanding the underlying mechanisms involved in host plant use by fruit flies and that instead economic and political interests usually prevail. Here we review the most important evolutionary, biological, ecological, physiological, and behavioral aspects that drive host use by fruit flies, and then construct a flow diagram rooted in these fundamentals that outlines a series of steps and definitions to determine if a particular fruit or vegetable (and cultivars thereof) is a natural host, or a conditional (potential, artificial) host, or a nonhost. Along the way, we incorporate risk analysis considerations and propose that the underlying complexity determining host plant utilization by fruit flies requires a flexible systems approach capable of realistically dealing with fly/host/environment/geographic variability on a case-by-case basis.

Four laboratory studies were conducted in Beagle dogs to evaluate the safety of a novel ectoparasiticide combination of metaflumizone plus amitraz (ProMeris/ProMeris Duo for Dogs, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Overland Park, KS) when applied according to the recommended dosage of >/=20mgmetaflumizonekg(-1) plus >/=20mgamitrazkg(-1), at exaggerated and repeated dosages, and if accidentally orally ingested. Parameters evaluated included body weight, food consumption, clinical, physical and neurological examinations, clinical pathology and gross and microscopic pathology. Exaggerated and repeated topical treatment with metaflumizone plus amitraz administered at 1x, 3x and 5x the recommended dose had no effect on clinical findings, heart rates, body weight, food consumption, physical/neurological examinations, macroscopic and microscopic pathology. Very slight, transient, clinically insignificant increases in serum urea nitrogen were noted in some dogs treated at all dose rates tested. This effect was not persistent, was not dose-responsive, nor aggravated by repeated applications and was not associated with a corresponding increase in creatinine or renal pathology. Therefore, these increases in urea nitrogen were suspected to be of non-renal origin and were not considered toxicologically significant. Exaggerated doses (3x and 5x) caused very mild, transient hyperglycemia, most notably in some adult females. Transient and inconsistently noted mild increases in leukocytes, neutrophils and monocytes were observed in some 3x and 5x treated dogs at some intervals. None of the effects noted were aggravated by repeated administration. When 10% of the recommended topical dose was orally administered to mimic exposure due to licking the application, avoidance behaviors including spitting, head shaking, and salivation were noted immediately in all animals. Consequently, voluntary oral ingestion is considered unlikely. Transient decreased activity, slightly reduced body temperature and pale oral mucous membranes were noted in some animals beginning 1-2h posttreatment. Ataxia, resolving within 4h posttreatment, was noted in one female. Oral administration had no effect on clinical pathology. Results from these four studies indicate repeated use of metaflumizone plus amitraz causes no adverse health effects when used as recommended in dogs as young as 8 weeks of age.

A novel spot-on formulation containing metaflumizone plus amitraz (ProMeris/ProMeris Duo for Dogs, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Overland Park, KS) was evaluated in four laboratory studies to confirm efficacy against fleas and ticks on dogs for 1 month. Three different strains of cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis felis) and four tick species were used. Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Dermacentor variabilis were evaluated concurrently in two studies and Ixodes scapularis and Amblyomma americanum in one study each. In all studies, dogs were randomly allocated to treatment groups and compared with nontreated dogs. One study also included a placebo treatment and a commercial product containing fipronil plus S-methoprene. All treatments were applied to the skin at a single spot between the scapulae on Day 0. Dogs were infested with fleas and/or ticks prior to treatment and then reinfested at weekly intervals for 6 weeks after treatment and evaluated for efficacy at 1 or 2 days after treatment and each reinfestation. These studies confirmed that treatment with ProMeris for Dogs at the proposed commercial dose rate rapidly controlled existing infestations of fleas and ticks on dogs. Treatment provided control of reinfesting fleas for up to 6 weeks and at least 4 weeks control of ticks. Efficacy was confirmed in a variety of dog breeds against three different flea strains and four common species of ticks found on dogs in the United States.

Four laboratory studies were conducted in cats of various ages to evaluate the safety of a novel low-volume topical spot-on containing 20% metaflumizone (ProMeris for Cats, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Overland Park, KS) when used in cats according to the recommended minimum dosage of 40mg metaflumizonekg(-1) delivered via fixed volume doses of 0.8ml for cats 4.0kg. Study parameters included body weight, food consumption, clinical, physical and neurological examinations, and clinical pathology including complete hematology, coagulation, clinical chemistry and urinalysis. Exaggerated and repeated topical applications of metaflumizone at 1x, 3x and 5x the proposed recommended dose in adult cats and kittens 8 weeks of age had no effect on mortality, body weight, food consumption, clinical, physical or neurological examinations, or clinical pathology parameters. Transient salivation was sporadically noted following some, but not all treatment applications. It occurred and resolved within minutes of treatment application in all groups, including cats treated with placebo. Consequently, it was not considered a direct result of treatment with the active ingredient, metaflumizone. Cats orally administered 10% of the recommended topical dose exhibited considerable avoidance behaviors including spitting, head shaking, and salivation. Therefore, voluntary oral exposure is unlikely. No other adverse signs were observed. Repeated use of metaflumizone caused no adverse health effects when administered at 5x the recommended dose and is safe when used as directed, even on kittens as young as 8 weeks of age.

Southern green stink bug (Nezara viridula, Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is a pest of macadamia nuts, causing pitting to kernels by feeding. In spite of its pest status, many aspects of the ecology of this insect in macadamia orchards are poorly understood. This study analyzes long-term N. viridula damage to macadamia nuts and investigates the extent to which damage to nuts occurs in the tree canopy, prior to nut-drop. We show that there are distinct seasonal peaks in damage detected after harvest and that, over six years of data collection, mean damage levels were fairly low, albeit with spikes in damage levels recorded. Sampling nuts at peak harvest periods from different strata in the trees and from the ground showed that incidence of damaged nuts within the canopy was typically half as high as on the fallen nuts. Damage to fallen nuts may have occurred prior to nut-drop, and continued to accumulate after nut-drop. These results show that management of N. viridula within macadamia canopies, as opposed to only on fallen nuts, is important. A sampling procedure and predictive model for estimating late-season damage based on early-season damage samples is provided. The model uses January and March damage measurements (based on samples with set level of accuracy), mean temperature and month of the year for which damage is predicted. Early-season damage of 6-10% predicts late-season damage levels that should justify N. viridula suppression based on the nominal threshold (13% damage) used by kernel processors to reject nuts based on damage.