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Many nations have adopted comprehensive data privacy laws to protect customers’ data. However, privacy policies of mobile wallet digital payment systems (DPS), and particularly the mobile wallet and remittance services that are part of DPS, are often not compliant with privacy laws. There is a lack of measures to assess how adequate the policies are in addressing data privacy issues. To address this problem, this article develops a compliance index to help DPS organizations assess the compliance of their privacy policies with the general data protection regulation (GDPR). The compliance index is created through a natural language process that includes term frequency-inverse document frequency matrix and topic modeling using latent Dirichlet allocation, to compute 1) an emphasis density score that indicates the level of emphasis a privacy policy places on GDPR dimensions, and 2) a privacy score that identifies the level of compliance of a privacy policy with GDPR. The compliance index is validated by assessing its effectiveness at the country level in comparison with an international publicly available data privacy benchmark.

In Code, the most influential book yet written about law and cyberspace, Lawrence Lessig makes an intriguing proposal for shaping privacy on the Internet: (1) the legal assignment to every individual of a property interest in her own personal information, and (2) the employment of software transmission protocols, such as P3P, to permit the individual to structure her access to Web sites. In "Beyond Lessig's Code for Internet Privacy: Cyberspace Filters, Privacy Control, and Fair Information Practices," 2000 Wisc. L. Rev. 743, I respond to this approach with a number of criticisms and a competing proposal. My initial criticism of Lessig's proposal for privacy concerns how it contradicts his stand against PICs, a software transmission protocol for filtering Internet content reminiscent of P3P. Once we place privacy in a social context, moreover, P3P seems far less attractive an option. In place of Lessig's underlying paradigm, which seeks to increase personal control of data. I develop a concept of constitutive privacy. In my view, information privacy is a constitutive value that safeguards participation and association in a free society. Rather than simply seeking to allow more and more individual control of personal data, we should view the normative function of information privacy as inhering in its relation to participatory democracy and individual self-determination. A privacy market can play a role in helping information privacy fulfill this constitutive function. Yet, Lessig's propertization of privacy raises a further set of difficulties. In my view, propertization a la Lessig will only heighten flaws in the current market for personal data. This consequence follows from numerous shortcomings in this market and structural difficulties that indicate the unlikelihood of a self-correction in it. Moreover, in revisiting Calabresi and Melamed's work regarding the comparative merits of property and liability regimes, I find that a mixed regime is to be preferred for Internet privacy over Lessig's property regime. Part III of this Article turns from criticism to prescription and develops the mixture of property and liability rules necessary for establishment of information privacy standards in cyberspace. It proposes recourse to Fair Information Practices (FIPs) to establish rules for the fair treatment of personal data on the Internet. Yet, FIPs are not without potential shortcomings if structured only as command-and-control rules. My suggestion therefore is that an American Internet privacy law consisting of FIPs should include both mandatory and default elements.

With global personal information flows increasing, efforts have been made to develop principles to standardize data protection regulations. However, no set of principles has yet achieved universal adoption. This note proposes a principle mandating that personal data be securely destroyed when it is no longer necessary for the purpose for which it was collected. Including a data deletion principle in future data protection standards will increase respect for individual autonomy and decrease the risk of abuse of personal data. Though data deletion is already practiced by many data controllers, including it in legal data protection mandates will further the goal of establishing an effective global data protection regime.

Data portability rights are viewed by policymakers worldwide as a significant legal innovation to stimulate competitive digital economies. These rights allow consumers and businesses to seamlessly receive and transfer data for commercialization and efficiency purposes. The newly implemented Australian Consumer Data Right (CDR) provides an illuminating example of the complex relationship between information privacy and competition law which is central to data portability initiatives. The CDR grants consumers and businesses access and transfer rights for consumer data in the Australian banking, energy, and telecommunications sectors, through the implementation of mandated API standards. There are three policy vectors at the heart of the CDR that parallel previous Australian, UK, and EU data portability developments. They are the type of regulated data covered by the CDR scheme, privacy and security protections and the overarching regulatory framework. We argue that the CDR, and its antecedents, primarily construct data portability as a competition law measure. However, while the general policy intention of the CDR is clear, we contend that the scheme reveals an uncertain role for information privacy law as part of its operation. Uncertainty is evident in how policymakers have considered the information privacy law issues inherent in the three policy vectors. We contend that the CDR could give rise to definitional problems with regulated data, duplicated privacy and security protections and a conceptually challenging regulatory framework. In conclusion, we suggest potential solutions that would assist with the operation of the CDR within Australia’s broader information privacy law framework, governed by the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth), which would also better align with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

Aim The paper investigates the new European Data Protection Regulation released in 2016. It highlights the data protection principles inspiring the Regulation and outlines its main innovative as well as critical aspects as regards the use of personal data for research purposes. Results: As far as scientific research is concerned, the new Regulation provides some interesting novelties in relation to informed consent and to use of personal data without consent. Conclusion: It is still early for the consideration of the new Regulation, in relation to which the transition period before it definitively comes into force in 2018 will be useful for making a complete and detailed assessment of its adequacy. However, it is precisely with reference to the collection of retrospective personal data that the greatest innovations are seen. It will therefore be interesting to follow the interpretative evolution of the principle of compatibility of purposes which renders - in fact - personal data already collected usable, even in the absence of consent from the data subject.

Two statutes focusing on consumer protection have been introduced recently: the Consumer Protection Act due to come into effect in October 2010 and the National Credit Act. There are many who criticize this legislation, arguing that this will overburden the economy and will lead to significant costs for business. In this article I examine some of the reasons why the Department of Trade and Industry deemed it necessary to introduce consumer protection legislation. I conclude by arguing that despite the increased costs for business, the legislation is necessary in order to prevent the exploitation of consumers by business that presently exists in South Africa. I do not, however, seek to answer the question whether this legislation will achieve its lofty aims. This, only time will tell. However, many acknowledge that the introduction of the National Credit Act shielded South Africa from some of the worst excesses of the global recession of 2008/2009. It is hoped that the Consumer Protection Act will likewise change the way many in South Africa do business.

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) has been recently introduced to harmonize the different data privacy laws across Europe. Whether inside the EU or outside, organizations have to comply with the GDPR as long as they handle personal data of EU residents. The organizations with whom personal data is shared are referred to as data controllers. When controllers subcontract certain services that involve processing personal data to service providers (also known as data processors), then a data processing agreement (DPA) has to be issued. This agreement regulates the relationship between the controllers and processors and also ensures the protection of individuals’ personal data. Compliance with the GDPR is challenging for organizations since it is large and relies on complex legal concepts. In this paper, we draw on model-driven engineering to build a machine-analyzable conceptual model that characterizes DPA-related requirements in the GDPR. Further, we create a set of criteria for checking the compliance of a given DPA against the GDPR and discuss how our work in this paper can be adapted to develop an automated compliance checking solution.

Introduction. This article provides an overview regarding privacy and data protection laws and principles around the world. It is based on lectures by the author on May 17, 2018 at Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO) and Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) on the occasion of the publication of a Russian version of the 3 rd edition of Determann's Field Guide to Data Privacy Law. Materials and methods. Materials include national and international laws and scholarly articles and books relating to privacy and data protection. Methods follow general principles of German and United States legal commentary. Research results. People, societies and governments value and protect privacy quite differently around the world. Consequently, data privacy, data security and data protection laws and policies vary significantly. Particularly pronounced are differences in the approach to the protection of privacy and information freedom and data processing regulation in the United States and the European Union. Discussion and conclusions. Law and policy makers around the world must analyze and balance their people's specific needs for privacy, security, freedom of information, technical progress, economic development and other values and objectives as they decide whether to adopt European Unionstyle data processing regulation, enact specific individual privacy laws as the United States, or pursue alternative approaches. They need to consider the different meanings of individual privacy, data security, information self-determination and data protection, as well as the different functions of data privacy laws, data processing regulation, record retention statutes and data residency requirements.

Connected drug delivery devices are increasingly being developed to support patient supervision and counseling in home setting. Features may include dosing reminders, adherence trackers, tools for patient education, and patient diaries to collect patient-reported outcomes, as well as monitoring tools with interfaces between patients and health care professionals (HCPs). Five connected devices have been selected as the basis for a review of the clinical evidence concerning the impact of electronic tools on treatment adherence and efficacy outcomes. Disease areas covered include multiple sclerosis, diabetes, hypertension, liver and renal transplant recipients, tuberculosis, hepatitis C, clinically isolated syndrome, asthma, and COPD. From studies comparing the use of electronic feedback tools to standard of care, there is an initial evidence for a higher adherence to treatment and better outcomes among patients who use the electronic tools. To substantiate the assumption that connected devices can improve adherence in an outpatient setting over a prolonged period of time, further data from controlled randomized studies are required. Key barriers to the broader adoption of connected devices include data privacy laws that may prevent data sharing with HCPs in some countries, as well as the need to demonstrate that the tools are consistently used and generate a high-quality and reproducible database. If these challenges can be addressed in a way that is agreeable to all stakeholders, it is expected that the future value of connected devices will be to 1) facilitate and improve patient involvement in disease management in a flexible care setting, 2) enable early treatment decisions, and 3) complement value-based reimbursement models.

The 50th anniversary in 2020 of the world’ s first data privacy law, the Datenschutzgesetz 1970 of the state of Hesse in Germany marks the first half century of their development. This article focuses on changes in the global development of these data privacy laws in 2019-20. In summary, the number of countries that have enacted data privacy laws rose from 132 to 145, and most of the 13 new laws are from 2019, before COVID-19 slowed down legislative activity world-wide. At least 23 other countries have official Bills for new laws in various stages of progress. During 2019-20, at least 13 countries have updated or replaced existing laws (almost always influenced by the EU’s GDPR). At least a further 11 have introduced Bills to do so. All of this adds up to nearly 60 countries world-wide where there was legislative activity in 2019-20 concerning data privacy, resulting in new or updated laws in 26 countries. All of these changes are detailed in the article, and in the two accompanying global Tables.

Digital twins are virtual models of cities that are built on real-time data extracted from sensors located within our built environment. Digital twins funnel a wide range of collected data from urban environments into automated decision-making frameworks that govern how we plan, design, build, operate and manage smart cites, including occupants. However, this use of collected data to predict and shape future behaviour in the city is accompanied with limited transparency about how automated decisions are made. Digital twins can consequently lead to ‘black box cities’ where data extraction seamlessly results in an automated decision-making output. This chapter examines whether the data collection practices that underpin digital twins are dataveillant and considers how information privacy legal obligations, articulated in the design of digital twins, may affect occupant perception of how trustworthy the system is. A conceptual framework of trustworthiness is applied to digital twins, with the three elements of trustworthiness being: ability, integrity and benevolence. The chapter examines how digital twins can be designed to be trustworthy by explicitly considering the role of socio-political values in data generation and analysis, especially that of information privacy law.

The legal system in Brazil has long looked to European legislation for inspiration and guidance. When it comes to data-privacy laws today, Brazilian legislators again have been encouraged by European officials to look to European models, the European Union’s General Data Privacy Regulation (GDPR). The Brazilian General Data Protection Law (Lei Geral de Protecao de Dados Pessoais, Law No. 13,709/2018, or "LGPD"), enacted in August 2020, specifically seeks to achieve the same level of restrictions and conform to the demands of the GDPR. Perhaps most importantly for our purposes, the Brazilian LGPD presents a significant compliance challenge for companies, forcing them to rethink how they collect, store, and use personal data throughout the data lifecycle. The practical scope of this paper assumes that the reader is already familiar with the EU data privacy laws and is seeking a good source of information about Brazilian data privacy laws. While many companies are already well advanced in assessing its data processing activities vis-a-vis the GDPR, they may also need to become LGPD compliant, which could mean instituting multiple new requirements. In broad strokes, this paper will explain, from a compliance and legal perspective, the existing differences between the GDPR and the LGPD regulations, the enforcement mechanisms, what companies need to know to become compliant with the Brazilian laws, as well as the effects of violations of the LGPD, its important definitions, and which entities have to comply.

This is the fourth in a series of Tables (accompanied by articles) which have documented the increasing number of countries with data privacy laws. The initial assessment in mid-2011resulted in an unexpectedly high finding of 76 countries , expanding through new laws and further research to 89 by early 2012 http://ssrn.com/abstract=2000034, and then by mid-2013 to 99 http://ssrn.com/abstract=2305882. These January 2015 Tables show that number of countries which have now enacted data privacy laws has risen to 109 over the past eighteen months, and that 22 Bills for new Acts are known.The accompanying articles analyse the Tables and other data: - 'Global data privacy laws 2015: 109 countries, with European laws now in a minority' (2015) 133 Privacy Laws & Business International Report, 14-17, available http://ssrn.com/abstract=2603529; and 'Global data privacy laws 2015: DPAs and their organisations' (2015) 134 Privacy Laws & Business International Report, 16-19.

This paper discusses the benefits and issues associated with big data and artificial intelligence (AI) for financial inclusion. The benefits of artificial intelligence and big data for financial inclusion are: improved efficiency and risk management for financial services providers; the provision of smart financial products and services to banked adults; simplification of the account opening process for unbanked adults and the creation of credit scores for unbanked adults using alternative information. Several issues associated with artificial intelligence and big data for financial inclusion that need to be addressed include: the shortage of skilled AI workers, increase in the level of unemployment in the financial ecosystem, the unconscious bias in the design of artificial intelligence systems, and other barriers caused by strict data privacy laws.

The networks of Data Protection Authorities (DPAs) and (as they are sometimes called) Privacy Enforcement Agencies (PEAs) have continued to expand their membership, and some of their activities, in 2019-20, despite the pandemic in 2020 calling a halt to international in-person meetings. This article analyses the details of those networks set out in the 2021 Global Tables of Data Privacy Laws (included in Privacy Laws & Business International Report, Issue 169) https://ssrn.com/abstract=3836261 and completes the analyses started in that issue. The last two columns of that Table identify the DPA/PEA, where one exists (and whether yet appointed), in each of the 145 countries with data privacy laws, and each network of which they are a member or observer. Some conclusions from this paper include: • Fewer than 10% (12/145) of countries with data protection laws do not provide for specialised DPAs. • Important proposed new laws are moving to a DPA model, but other proposed revisions persist with the ‘Ministerial enforcement model’ and no DPA. The trend is consistently toward the DPA model. • A few countries have failed to bring their laws into force for at least two years after enactment, but South Africa is no longer among them. • It is a positive indicator of the vitality of national DPAs that nearly 90% (105/120) of them, once they are established, become involved in at least one DPA network. The record of national DPAs and PEAs, once appointed, in joining networks of DPAs or PEAs is very good but not universal.

Never before have there been so many draft laws and Bills in Asian jurisdictions awaiting finalisation and enactment. The jurisdictions with the most important changes to existing drafts are China and Sri Lanka. Brunei becomes the latest Asian country with a data privacy draft law. However, there are also developments in countries in north-east Asia, south Asia and south-east Asia. Some countries, however, are in the ‘slow lane’ in moving reform forward, particularly India and Indonesia, where major reform Bills have languished for more than a year – due partly to COVID 19 disruptions. Developments in reforms (if any) in all 26 countries in Asia are noted at least briefly in this article. The overall picture is that Asia is undergoing a more intense transformation of its data privacy laws than any other region of the world at present. This article is the 2021 update to my Asian Data Privacy Laws: Trade and Human Rights Perspectives (OUP, 2014).

Daten bilden während der Corona-Pandemie die Basis für weitreichende politische Entscheidungen im Bund, in den Ländern und in den Kommunen und beeinflussen damit massiv den Alltag und die Gesundheit von Millionen Menschen. Jedoch fehlen viele Daten zum Infektionsgeschehen und vorhandene Daten aus anderen Bereichen werden nicht ergänzend für vertiefte Analysen genutzt. Beschrieben werden die aktuell vorhandenen Schuldaten sowie die darüber hinausgehenden Datenerfordernisse für das geplante Bund-Länder-Programm zur Schließung von coronabedingten Lern- bzw. Kompetenzlücken der Schüler*innen und dessen Evaluation. Ergänzend werden Ansätze zur Identifikation von kleinräumigen Infektionsclustern und zu berufsgruppen- und branchenspezifischen Auswertungen vorgeschlagen. Den Vorschlägen gemein ist die Nutzung von kleinräumigen Daten sowie die Inanspruchnahme eines vertrauenswürdigen Dritten, um datenschutzkonform (Individual-)Daten aus unterschiedlichen Quellen miteinander verknüpfen und für vertiefte Auswertungen als Grundlage für evidenzbasierte politische Entscheidungen zur Verfügung stellen zu können. (DIPF/Orig.), This paper discusses the fact that in Germany, many of the extensive political decisions pertaining to the Corona Pandemic lack adequate evidence as a basis. Yet these decisions exert a massive influence on the daily life and health of millions of people. Data on the development of infections are, however, often incomplete, and chances to connect them to existing data from other areas are being missed. The article thus describes currently existing school data and the data requirements beyond them with regard to upcoming political decisions on the closing of students’ competency gaps and its evaluation. Furthermore, approaches to identifying small-range infection clusters and possibilities for job-specific and sectoral analyses are proposed. The different suggestions share the ideas of using small-range data and utilizing a trusted third party to connect data from different sources and, in accordance with data privacy laws, make them available for deepened analyses, thus providing a basis for evidence-based political decisions. (DIPF/Orig.)

Caller identification (or Caller ID) is a telephone service that transmits a caller’s phone number to a receiving party’s telephony equipment when the call is being set up. Besides the telephone number, the Caller ID service may transmit a name associated with the calling telephone number. The appearance of the first Caller ID devices caused suspicion among the users and the public because of the potential security and privacy issues that the caller identification may cause. Privacy issues apply to users of the Caller ID applications, but also to non-users whose phone numbers are stored in the database of some Caller ID application. The emergence of the data privacy laws has led discussions on the privacy policies of Caller ID applications and their compliance with the law. In this paper we investigate two Caller ID applications, Truecaller and Everybody, and compliance of their privacy policies with the data privacy laws, especially the GDPR, the ePrivacy Directive and the ePrivacy Regulation. Further, we deal in more detail with the data privacy problem of non-users and we give the connection between those problems, and the inverse privacy problem. In order to solve the privacy problem of non-users, we develop the mathematical model based on the notions of privacy variables and sensitivity function. Finally, we discussed open questions related to the identity protection of Caller ID app users and non-users, and their trust in Caller ID apps.

This report highlights a complex situation in which some forms of data localisation are seen as useful and largely uncontroversial, while others as a significant barrier to the digital economy. Contributing to the review of the implementation of the OECD Privacy Guidelines, the report emphasises the need to recognise the effect that data localisation can have on transborder data flows, but suggests that the conditions that data privacy laws traditionally impose do not necessarily amount to data localisation measures. Focusing on data localisation in the context of data privacy and the governance of globalised data flows, the report proposes a definition for data localisation, outlines a roadmap to ensure that data localisation does not impede transborder data flows, and makes recommendations to support such work. In particular, it emphasises the relevance of the accountability principle and the proportionality test articulated in the OECD Privacy Guidelines in evaluating data localisation measures.

Individuals are gaining more control of their personal data through recent data privacy laws such the General Data Protection Regulation and the California Consumer Privacy Act. One aspect of these laws is the ability to request a business to delete private information, the so called "right to be forgotten" or "right to erasure". These laws have serious financial implications for companies and organizations that train large, highly accurate deep neural networks (DNNs) using these valuable consumer data sets. However, a received redaction request poses complex technical challenges on how to comply with the law while fulfilling core business operations. We introduce a DNN model lifecycle maintenance process that establishes how to handle specific data redaction requests and minimize the need to completely retrain the model. Our process is based upon the membership inference attack as a compliance tool for every point in the training set. These attack models quantify the privacy risk of all training data points and form the basis of follow-on data redaction from an accurate deployed model; excision is implemented through incorrect label assignment within incremental model updates., 8 pages, 7 figures

Blockchain is a time stamped ledger that is used to keep immutable records. This technology has gained immense popularity due to the use of its decentralized architecture in cryptocurrency platforms. Blockchain has been increasingly adopted in other sectors due to its ability to ensure data integrity. The increasing use of blockchain by the public has made it become a subject to data privacy laws. Based on the study conducted by other researchers, there are features of blockchain that conflict with certain elements in data privacy laws. The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which becomes a model for data privacy act of many other countries, has been identified to be incompatible with blockchain. One of the research works in the area of blockchain is to figure out how blockchain can be made to comply with such privacy laws. In Malaysia, blockchain is still relatively new and a study needs to be done to evaluate its compatibility with Personal Data Protection Act 2010 (PDPA). Hence, the aim of this paper is to identify the gaps between blockchain and PDP A in terms of their compatibility and to propose solutions to bridge the gaps. Based on the gaps identified, the paper proposed the use permissioned or private blockchain, off-chain storage and stealth address to enable a blockchain application to be compliant with PDPA.

Advances in customers' data privacy laws create pressures and pain points across the entire lifecycle of AI products. Working figures such as data scientists and data engineers need to account for the correct use of privacy-enhancing technologies such as homomorphic encryption, secure multi-party computation, and trusted execution environment when they develop, test and deploy products embedding AI models while providing data protection guarantees. In this work, we share the lessons learned during the development of frameworks to aid data scientists and data engineers to map their optimized workloads onto privacy-enhancing technologies seamlessly and correctly.

During software development activities, it is important for Information and Communication Technology (ICT) practitioners to know and understand practices and guidelines regarding information privacy, as software requirements must comply with data privacy laws and members of development teams should know current legislation related to the protection of personal data. In order to gain a better understanding on how industry ICT practitioners perceive the practical relevance of software privacy and privacy requirements and how these professionals are implementing data privacy concepts, we conducted a survey with ICT practitioners from software development organizations to get an overview of how these professionals are implementing data privacy concepts during software design. We performed a systematic literature review to identify related works with software privacy and privacy requirements and what methodologies and techniques are used to specify them. In addition, we conducted a survey with ICT practitioners from different organizations. Findings revealed that ICT practitioners lack a comprehensive knowledge of software privacy and privacy requirements and the Brazilian General Data Protection Law (Lei Geral de Prote&ccedil, &atilde, o de Dados Pessoais, LGPD, in Portuguese), nor they are able to work with the laws and guidelines governing data privacy. Organizations are demanded to define an approach to contextualize ICT practitioners with the importance of knowledge of software privacy and privacy requirements, as well as to address them during software development, since LGPD must change the way teams work, as a number of features and controls regarding consent, documentation, and privacy accountability will be required.

Technology has changed how discrimination manifests itself in financial services. Replacing human discretion with algorithms in decision-making roles reduces taste-based discrimination, and new modeling techniques have expanded access to financial services to households who were previously excluded from these markets. However, algorithms can exhibit bias from human involvement in the development process, and their opacity and complexity can facilitate statistical discrimination inconsistent with antidiscrimination laws in several aspects of financial services provision, including advertising, pricing, and credit-risk assessment. In this chapter, we provide a new amalgamation and analysis of these developments, identifying five gateways whereby technology induces discrimination to creep into financial services. We also consider how these technological changes in finance intersect with existing discrimination and data privacy laws, leading to our contribution of four frontlines of regulation. Our analysis concludes that the net effect of innovation in technological finance on discrimination is ambiguous and depends on the future choices made by policymakers, the courts, and firms.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify five quality improvement initiatives for healthcare system leaders, produced by such leaders themselves, and to provide some guidance on how these could be implemented. Design/methodology/approach A multi-stage modified-Delphi process was used, blending the Delphi approach of iterative information collection, analysis and feedback, with the option for participants to revise their judgments. Findings The process reached consensus on five initiatives: change information privacy laws; overhaul professional training and work in the workplace; use co-design methods; contract for value and outcomes across health and social care; and use data from across the public and private sectors to improve equity for vulnerable populations and the sickest people. Research limitations/implications Information could not be gathered from all participants at each stage of the modified-Delphi process, and the participants did not include patients and families, potentially limiting the scope and nature of input. Practical implications The practical implications are a set of findings based on what leaders would bring to a decision-making table in an ideal world if given broad scope and capacity to make policy and organisational changes to improve healthcare systems. Originality/value This study adds to the literature a suite of recommendations for healthcare quality improvement, produced by a group of experienced healthcare system leaders from a range of contexts.

As the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) comes into effect to ensure the data protection and privacy of the personal information of its citizens, positive benefits will als...

This article examines the complex relationship between consumer protection law and data protection law, particularly within the EU's online environment, and highlights the problems that stem from this complexity. It suggests that, while there are significant similarities between their respective sources, tools and purposes, there are also arguable differences between consumer protection law and data protection law. One such arguable difference is found in that, while consumer protection law can be seen to merely set a floor in its pursuit of a sufficiently high level of consumer protection, data protection law – due to its clearly articulated dual purposes of (a) protecting individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and (b) providing for the free movement of such data – sets both a floor and a ceiling. Having discussed the relationship between consumer protection law and data protection law in more detail, the argument is made that it seems possible to conclude that the balance struck in the Data Protection Directive, and soon in the General Data Protection Regulation, places limitations on consumer protection law. The implications of this conclusion are then examined briefly in the context of some matters currently coming before the CJEU and the contours of a framework are presented, addressing situations where a data protection-based liability claim is pursued against a third-party non-controller under consumer protection law.

The consent model of privacy protection assumes that individuals control their personal information and are able to assess the risks associated with data sharing. The model is attractive for policy-makers and automakers because it has the effect of glossing over the conceptual ambiguities that are latent in definitions of privacy. Instead of formulating a substantive and normative position on what constitutes a reasonable expectation of privacy in the circumstance, individuals are said to have control over their data. Organizations have obligations to respect rights to notice, access and consent regarding the collection, use and disclosure of personal data once that data has been shared. The policy goal becomes how to provide individuals with control over their personal data in the consent model of privacy protection. This paper argues that the privacy issues raised by vehicular ad hoc networks make this approach increasingly untenable. It is argued that substantive rules that establish a basic set of privacy norms regarding the collection, use and disclosure of data are necessary. This can be realized in part via a privacy code of practice for the connected vehicle. This paper first explores the relationship between privacy, consent and personal information in relation to the connected car. This is followed by a description of vehicular ad hoc networks and a survey of the technical proposals aimed at securing data. The privacy issues that will likely remain unsolved by enhancing individual consent are then discussed. The last section provides some direction on how a code of practice can assist in determining when individual consent will need to be enhanced and when alternatives to consent will need to be implemented.

A recent Australian Federal Court decision has raised the issue of the scope of information protected under the Australian Privacy Act 1988. The Court failed to adequately address this question, leaving Australians unsure as to whether sections of their information, such as the IP addresses allocated to their mobile devices, will be considered personal information under the Act. The main consideration the Court dealt with was what it means for information to be “about” an individual. In this paper I address two questions: a) how is information determined to be “about” an individual under the Act; and b) how should this determination be made in the future? I conclude that currently available guidance from the courts, the Australian Information Commissioner and scholarly commentary are inadequate to enable individuals, organisations and agencies to consistently make such determinations. Accordingly I draw on approaches to this question taken in Canada, New Zealand, the European Union and the United Kingdom to argue that the definition should be broadly interpreted in a technologically-aware manner. This will help to ensure that personal information is more comprehensively protected under the Privacy Act.

Privacy becomes a major concern for both consumers and enterprises; therefore many research efforts have been devoted to the development of privacy preserving technology. The challenge in data privacy is to share the data while assuring the protection of personal information. Data privacy includes assuring protection for both insider ad outsider threats even if the data is published. Access control can help to protect the data from outsider threats. Access control is defined as the process of mediating every request to resources and data maintained by a system and determining whether the request should be granted or denied. This can be enforced by a mechanism implementing regulations established by a security policy. In this paper, we present privacy preserving data publishing model based on integration of CPBAC, MD-TRBAC, PBFW, protection against database administrator technique inspired from oracle vault technique and benefits of anonymization technique to protect data when being published using k-anonymity. The proposed model meets the requirements of workflow and non-workflow system in enterprise environment. It is based on the characteristics of the conditional purposes, conditional roles, tasks, and policies. It guarantees the protection against insider threats such as database administrator. Finally it assures needed protection in case of publishing the data. Keywords: Database security, Access control, Data publishing, Anonymization

The Internet of healthcare things is essentially a new model that changes the way of the delivery and management of healthcare services. It utilizes digital sensors and cloud computing to present a quality healthcare service outside of the classical hospital environment. This resulted in the emergence of a new class of online web 4.0 services, which are termed “cloud healthcare services”. Cloud healthcare services offer a straightforward opportunity for patients to communicate with healthcare professionals and utilize their personal IoHT devices to obtain timely and accurate medical guidance and decisions. The personal IoHT devices integrate sensed health data at a central cloud healthcare service to extract useful health insights for wellness and preventive care strategies. However, the present practices for cloud healthcare services rely on a centralized approach, where patients’ health data are collected and stored on servers, located at remote locations, which might be functioning under data privacy laws somewhat different from the ones applied where the service is running. Promoting a privacy respecting cloud services encourages patients to actively participate in these healthcare services and to routinely provide an accurate and precious health data about themselves. With the emergence of fog computing paradigm, privacy protection can now be enforced at the edge of the patient’s network regardless of the location of service providers. In this paper, a framework for cloud healthcare recommender service is presented. We depicted the personal gateways at the patients’ side act as intermediate nodes (called fog nodes) between IoHT devices and cloud healthcare services. A fog-based middleware will be hosted on these fog nodes for an efficient aggregation of patients generated health data while maintaining the privacy and the confidentiality of their health profiles. The proposed middleware executes a two-stage concealment process that utilizes the hierarchical nature of IoHT devices. This will unburden the constrained IoHT devices from performing intensive privacy preserving processes. At that, the patients will be empowered with a tool to control the privacy of their health data by enabling them to release their health data in a concealed form. The further processing at the cloud healthcare service continues over the concealed data by applying the proposed protocols. The proposed solution was integrated into a scenario related to preserving the privacy of the patients’ health data when utilized by a cloud healthcare recommender service to generate health insights. Our approach induces a straightforward solution with accurate results, which are beneficial to both patients and service providers.

This article discusses ways in which the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and post-GATS free trade agreements may limit the EU's ability to regulate privacy and personal data protection as fundamental rights. After discussing this issue in two dimensions – the vertical relationship between trade and national and European Union (EU) law, and the horizontal relationship between trade and human rights law – the author concludes that these limits are real and pose serious risks.Inspired by recent developments in safeguarding labour, and environmental standards and sustainable development, the article argues that privacy and personal data protection should be part of, and protected by, international trade deals made by the EU. The EU should negotiate future international trade agreements with the objective of allowing them to reflect the normative foundations of privacy and personal data protection. This article suggests a specific way to achieve this objective.

The sharing of data across borders is core in informational economies. However, the Schrems case against Facebook in 2014 raised important questions about the capacity of existing ‘safe harbour’ policies and practices of multinational corporations in Europe and North America to protect the privacy of individuals’ data. The EU–US ‘Privacy Shield’ framework was subsequently developed to increase data privacy protections. This paper draws upon a sample of English language newspapers and Twitter accounts in Europe and the US from the summer of 2016 to identify the key actors and discourses surrounding the introduction of the Privacy Shield framework. The findings reveal a dominance of trade, market and security language, a focus on individual informational privacy and the dominance of state and legal actors. We argue that privacy is not being redefined in the context of intercontinental data transfers but rather narrowed to a neoliberal free trade framing of information privacy.

Personal data and its use have become the front-line of businesses in the digital market. With the potential to be extracted for information, making this available for various purposes, big data transforms into a powerful tool for data controllers for effective marketing, defining strategic business decisions, and establishing a strong foothold in the market. The use of personal data for targeted marketing exemplifies this. While privacy has been subject to the regime of privacy protection, privacy violation might entangle competition law analysis when it involves abuse of market dominance. This paper addresses these problems by discussing three key issues: first, how competition law addresses the use of personal data as the new frontier of innovation and competition; second, whether big data plays a role to qualify dominance; and third, if non-negotiable policy on privacy infringes the prohibition of dominance abuse under competition law.

The Privacy Amendment (Notifiable Data Breaches) Act 2017 (Cth) introduced a new Part IIIC into the Privacy Act to strengthen the existing information privacy laws by requiring the designated organisations to notify the Information Commissioner and affected individuals of data breaches that are likely to cause serious harm. The objective of this article is to consider the proper public policy basis for data breach notification laws, the likely ambit of operation of the new provisions and the merits of the law in enhancing data security. Whilst the article focuses on the Australian legislative framework, the provisions European Union’s new General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679, 27 April 2016, will also be considered to extend the discussion of appropriate law in this area. The article will conclude by identifying continuing areas of concern and suggesting initiatives to further strengthen the data privacy of individuals.

The protection of privacy and confidentiality of personal data generated on internet at residence and in motion within and across the border is a cause of concern. The European Union and United States have adopted divergent approaches to this issue mainly due to varying socio-cultural backgrounds. With the globalisation of businesses facilitated by internet revolution, the economic considerations out-weighed the rights consideration, and the right based approach started buckling the pressure of economic based approach but was checked by the Schrem’s case. The negotiation under TTP and TTIP has a tendency to forgo the privacy rights of the individuals over business considerations in tune with the US tactics of weakening the privacy laws through Free Trade Agreements. It has been demonstrated that a balanced approach in which individual control over data is desirable but should not be absolute, control rights are reinforced by structural safeguards or architectural controls would be desirable.

The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) revolution has brought considerable socio-economic benefits to humanity over the last 50 years. However, one of its side effects has been an increased threat to personal privacy owing to the widespread use of digital services that make utility of personal information, the extreme ease with which that information is captured, transmitted, analyzed and stored coupled with the incentives for a range of actors to misuse the information at their disposal or reach. This article presents a ministerial view that one should not have to trade-off between privacy and security, or be told to give-up privacy for safety. In part, this declaration is foundationally germane to Rwanda’s digital transformation, and our society’s approach to erecting Privacy protections, harnessing the deep value that Privacy had once held in Rwanda’s pre-colonial tradition, and has again, in her most recent history. In view of a rapid transformation that is presently turning the country into a digital hub for the Continent of Africa, Rwanda is charting a path forward to achieve a double purpose; on one hand the prospect of leveraging information technology for the benefits of her citizens, and on the other hand, securing and protecting the privacy of her citizens, as a key component of Rwanda’s societal identity. This article further presents that given the leadership that Rwanda has demonstrated in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for Development in Africa, the nation’s course of action in relation to data and personal privacy protection will have a positive influence on the rest of the African continent that is now bracing to form a single digital market through the Continent-wide Smart Africa initiative.