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The evolution of crusading has not been thoroughly charted for the crucial period of the second half of the fourteenth century. The concept of the crusade underwent a process of transformation, from aiming to liberate the Holy Land (the traditional passagium) to being a defensive war against the Turks. While this transition is now generally accepted by scholars, it is not yet clear when exactly and through what stages it took place. The purpose of this contribution is to investigate this process from a cultural point of view and to analyze the ways in which it occurred. Three popes, directly involved in the organization of several military expeditions, played a crucial role in the shifting focus of the crusade: Innocent VI, Urban V and Gregory XI. Linguistic clues within the letters of these popes reveal the change in the objective of crusading. References to Terra Sancta never completely disappeared, but had little connection to the reality on the ground: the popes focused on the Ottoman threat; the indulgences and privileges were granted to those who fought the Turks. This mental change did not seem to be a conscious process, but a progressive and involuntary shift towards contemporary emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Consumer decision processes in the real world often involve consideration of related choices that are temporally separated but similar in nature. In the context of sequential choices, this study examines how consumers respond to temptation in the present when imagining themselves engaging in their future behavior in the face of similar temptation. We demonstrate that consumers are more likely to resist (succumb to) current temptation when imagining themselves resisting (succumbing to) future temptation. Our investigation suggests a consistency effect whereby a future behavior involving temptation allows consumers to demonstrate that behavior when making an actual choice in the present. We further show that this consistency effect is stronger for nonimpulsive consumers and explained by the mechanism of counteractive construal, which occurs when consumers resolve a self‐control conflict by exaggerating the threat of a temptation to a goal (e.g., construing a tempting food as containing more calories than it actually does). By delineating the effect of considering a future behavior on consumers' immediate self‐regulation, this study offers implications for consumers who want to strengthen self‐regulation, for marketers who need to strategically address consumer behavior, and for public policymakers who want to promote a healthier society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the conditions under which host country portfolios are more likely to regularize corporate tax behavior. We use a sample comprising data on Japanese multinationals covering 2004 to 2014 to examine the relationship between foreign direct investment (FDI) host country portfolios and tax avoidance from the perspectives of investor protection and ethical standards. Our multivariate regression results show that the number of countries with strong investor protection/high ethical standards in the FDI host country portfolio is negatively related to tax avoidance. We also find that the effect of investor protection/ethical standards is less pronounced when the degree of indulgence is high. Further analyses show that the relationships we find are affected by disclosure requirements, local regulations, and accounting standards. These findings remain unchanged after several sensitivity checks. Overall, this study contributes to the business ethics literature by showing that FDI host country investor protection and ethical standards are external monitoring mechanisms for mitigating tax avoidance by multinationals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following study focuses on the development of the cult of the Holy Blood of Wilsnack in Northern Germany. This cult emerged in the late 14th century and centred on the three bloody hosts that appeared untouched in the ruins of a burned-down church, each supposedly with a drop of blood in its midst. Soon after their appearance, the town of Wilsnack became a significant place of veneration for medieval pilgrims. However, already at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, critics started to voice concerns about the truthfulness of the supposed miracles. The first part of this essay would discuss primary sources that provide supportive as well as critical views of the Wilsnack events. The support of the miracles is evident, especially in the papal letters of indulgences for Wilsnack pilgrims. On the other hand, critical voices came from some theologians, such as Nicholas of Cusa, Jan Hus and others. The essay would also debate the events' impact on late medieval society. In its second part, the essay will briefly discuss the transformation of the Holy Blood tradition of Wilsnack and how it is presented in contemporary local culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article contains the edition of the newly found letter of indulgence that was granted by three Roman Cardinals: Francesco Lando, Antonio Pancera, and Francesco Zabarella, for the no-longer extant Franciscan friary in Ashmiany in present-day Belarus. It was issued on 16 January 1416 during the Council of Constance, sede vacante. The text of this indulgence has been preserved as a copy in the collection of documents of the above-mentioned friary that was compiled in the early seventeenth century (now kept at Vilnius University Library, Manuscript Department, F. 114–13). For the time being, this text represents one of the earliest known indulgences related to a specific religious house in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and thus makes part and parcel of the meagre fund of primary sources illuminating the first steps in the process of Christianization of post-conversion Lithuania. This indulgence may also serve as a clue allowing us to expand the circle of the known participants from Lithuania at the Council of Constance by including Friars Minor, whose scope of service for the Grand Dukes of Lithuania still awaits a more thorough investigation.

Prior research has demonstrated that while people experience pride after an accomplishment, its experience can both encourage and discourage subsequent regulatory behavior. The current research shows that this seemingly contradictory influence can be accounted for by considering the information about the event that generated the pride (i.e., appraisal information) and whether or not a self-regulatory goal is active. In the absence of a self-regulatory goal, appraisal information concerning the locus of control (e.g., "I contributed to this achievement; it was not luck") can be used to make positive inferences about one's self-concept that reinforce further self-regulation. In the presence of a self-regulatory goal, appraisal information concerning personal agency (e.g., "This was my achievement, not someone else's achievement") can be used to make positive inferences about one's progress toward self-regulation that, in turn, licenses indulgence. Thus appraisal information and the presence of self-regulatory goals is critical to how a self-conscious emotion like pride influences subsequent behavior. Implications and potential extensions in the areas of self-conscious emotions, goals, and self-regulation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article gives notice of an important illuminated prayer roll linked to Bromholm Priory in Norfolk, a popular pilgrimage destination during the Middle Ages thanks to its miraculous relic of the Cross. Known hitherto only from its brief appearance on the market in the 1960s and 1970s, the roll has never before been closely examined or published in its entirety. Identification with John, bishop of Chalcedon, fixes a date for the roll between 1505 and 1535. It includes two images of the relic, and another with Christ nailed to the Cross. A fourth miniature shows the Three Nails to scale, the Crown of Thorns and the Five Wounds, and thus relates the Bromholm roll to Arma Christi rolls. Votive antiphons in Latin and English separate the illuminations, together with papal and episcopal indulgences and the amuletic Seven Gifts. The roll sheds new light on late medieval devotion, pilgrimage and the cult of the Cross at Bromholm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the discussion on Martin Luther's words and actions conveying the message loudly and clearly including fellow monks, priests, and professors nor the upper and middle classes impoverished by the sale of indulgences.

Copyright of Annals of Theology / Roczniki Teologiczne is the property of Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL & Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawla II and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study, published in Greek in 1983–1985, is devoted to a phenomenon in the Eastern Orthodox Church that had not, until then, been the subject of a special research in the field of social history. Based on a vast array of historical sources, the author presents and comments on facts about the production and distribution of indulgences from the Patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Antioch from the 16th to the 20th century. The emergence and gradual establishment of the institution of indulgences in Eastern Orthodoxy is traced within the socio-political and cultural context of four centuries, focusing on the reasons for the introduction of indulgences, the stages of gradual standardization of their text, and the various forms of their distribution. The phenomenon is reflected in detail, taking into account its extension into the field of dogma, economics, social and political relations. The study sheds new abundant light on important issues in the history of the church, societies and attitudes in the world of Eastern Orthodoxy. An inventory of 57 printed Orthodox indulgences is also attached. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent scholarship on indulgences has focused on the shared concepts theologians and canonists drew on to explain these remissions and advantageous effects of indulgences on popular piety, the mendicant orders, and the papacy. A closer examination of the work of thirteenth-century canonists reveals an uncertainty about the mechanism by which indulgences worked and concerns that diverged from those of theologians. While the treasury of merit was a popular theological explanation, it was generally ignored by most canonists, who preferred explanations based on jurisdiction, the power of the keys, and suffrages. A key distinction between suffrages, good works done with the intent of spiritually benefitting others, and the treasury of merit is that the former burdens the living while the latter does not, since it draws on merit stored from already completed actions. Since it makes granting indulgences burdensome, the suffrage theory offers a disincentive to granting indiscrete or excessive remissions. Abuse of indulgences underlined the tensions between the authority of God and the church, the penitential and public forums, and the overlapping jurisdictions of prelates. Unlike the suffrage theory of indulgences, the treasury of merit theory offers little incentive for restraint. This may explain its relative absence in the writings of thirteenth-century canonists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the mid-sixteenth century, King Philip II of Spain entered into tense negotiations with Rome over the fate of the bula de la cruzada, a crusading indulgen that had been granted to Iberian monarchs since the Middle Ages. That indulgence had become a means of defraying the cost of war against enemies of the faith. But endemic abuses and concerns about the growing power of Spanish monarchs in ecclesiastical affairs led popes and Tridentine delegates to pursue an end to the cruzada. Philip emerged the victor from this contest and in so doing signaled the co-opting of the medieval crusading tradition by the early modern state. While these developments abetted governmental bureaucratization and centralization in Spain, they also undermined its economic, social, and religious stability, a risk made acceptable by Philip's own sense of divine mission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antwerp altarpieces produced between c. 1500–1540 could be remarkably similar and have often been regarded as epitomising the shift from bespoke commissions to standardized objects made to be sold on an open market. The only (preserved) Antwerp altarpiece imported to Norway was commissioned by the priest Ansten Jonsson Skonk and put on display in the parish church of Ringsaker shortly before the Reformation was introduced in Denmark-Norway in 1537. Unique in Norway, the altarpiece is of uncommon character even within the larger body of preserved Antwerp pieces. When analysing the many idiosyncrasies of the Ringsaker altarpiece, it comes across as a deliberately versatile product: on the one hand it carefully reflects altarpieces and devotional practices known to Skonk; on the other, it also reflects contemporary religious disputes of northern Europe more broadly, substantiating the claim that (some) Antwerp workshops intentionally created "multi-confessional" artworks – seemingly to suit the patron(s) in question once installed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Marketers and academics have long been interested in understanding what drives impulsive behavior and have focused on what causes a person to indulge. The three experiments reported in this article examine reasons that underlie urges that strengthen over time and cause people to overindulge from a goal-theoretic view of impulsiveness. The authors demonstrate that impulsivity is characterized by generalized reward sensitivity and by an activation of chronic goals to seek pleasure in various domains (Experiment 1). Furthermore, through a moment-to-moment tracking of desires, the authors demonstrate that such chronic goals, particularly in conjunction with temporarily primed goals, provide the momentum for impulsive people to override their self-control goals, leading to a strengthening of desires over time (Experiment 2). In turn, this causes impulsive people to behave even more impulsively when their activated hedonic goals are not satiated (Experiment 3). The findings suggest that contextual cues have powerful influences on impulsive behavior over time when acting in conjunction with chronic hedonic goals. The results have public policy implications for behaviors such as binge drinking and unrestrained eating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has examined consumers' use of self-control to avoid hedonic (myopic) temptations, such as overspending and smoking. In this research we investigate the opposite form of self-control, whereby consumers force themselves to indulge and avoid default forms of spending on utilitarian necessities and/or savings. In particular, consumers who have difficulty choosing items that are perceived as indulgences or luxuries (e.g., a cruise) over necessities (e.g., saving for college education) and cash in everyday decisions may use precommitments to indulgence, especially when the psychological cost of such commitments is less concrete. These propositions were tested in a series of studies involving real and hypothetical choices as well as process measures. The results indicate that a substantial segment of consumers choose hedonic luxury rewards over cash of equal or greater value; consumers typically explain such choices based on the need to precommit to indulgence, to make sure that the award does not end up in the pool of money used for necessities. In addition, consistent with our analysis, the likelihood of precommitting to indulgence is enhanced when (a) the consequences of the decision will be realized farther in the future, (b) the odds of winning the reward are lower, and (c) consumers anticipate how they will use each possible award. We also show that awards representing indulgence are more effective than cash as incentives for participation in a (real) lottery. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beginning in 1520, select Roman confraternities were elevated by the pope to the new prestigious rank of archconfraternity, empowered to aggregate comparable sodalities worldwide, share spiritual benefits, and elect a cardinal protector for life. Archconfraternities privileged architecture, art, and festive displays to enhance devotion while augmenting their coveted place in the confraternal hierarchy. As esteemed exemplars of lay spirituality and charity, they reinforced Rome as the capital of global Catholicism, creating an integrated web of pious practices, venerated images, and indulgences. Despite their importance, no monographic study exists. Therefore, this essay is a prolegomenon and begins by examining the ways in which Roman archconfraternities served as paradigms. Then it establishes a chronology of the earliest groups and their cardinal protectors, elucidating the protector’s crucial role, his interwoven networks of jurisdiction, and expectations of his generous patronage of the arts.

In this article the author talks about the egotistical indulgences in the pleasures of competition to create the gaming environments and obstacles. Topics discussed include live-action role-playing game about inventing language; the government brought together deaf children from across the country to form an experimental school with the goal of teaching children to lip read; and absorb themselves in the practical details of communicating inside the severe restrictions of the game.

The accepted narrative concerning monastic preaching to the English laity suggests that it happened occasionally in the twelfth century and then disappeared until the fourteenth century when monks and canons regular, belatedly following the friars' example, began to preach again. This paper calls that narrative into question. Records of episcopal administration and surviving sermon books of monastic provenance, including manuscripts from Worcester and Durham cathedrals, provide evidence for pastoral care of the laity and popular preaching by cloistered religious in thirteenth-century England. This would indicate that some monks and canons were contributors and not mere bystanders to the pastoral revolution that shaped later medieval lay religion. In addition to providing evidence, the article points towards previously neglected sources where more is likely to be found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing attention on Luther's frequently overlooked comments in Explanations of the Disputes Concerning the Power of Indulgences (1518), the defense of The Ninety-Five Theses, the essay argues that Luther's theology of the cross is not one theme among many, but the ground of theology. As Luther explains in Thesis 15, the cross is the theological ground on which to understand and answer human suffering as well as the experience of God-abandonment. In thesis 58, he derives this theology from God's alien and proper work. He goes on to contrast it to the "illusory theology" of Aristotelian scholastics. The theology of the cross does not bless suffering but proclaims the God who declares the nothingness of suffering and death to be life and grace. The Christian lives and prays under suffering and cross and yet hears and believes the promise of resurrection in Christ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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It is difficult to find information on the financing of the Council of Basel, due to the almost total loss of its account books. Therefore, the few studies of its financial history are based on the big source collections, such as the Council's protocols. To counter-balance this, local and regional sources offer insights just as important. The most important fund-raising action of the Council was the indulgence to finance the union with the Greek Church, proclaimed on 14 April 1436. In this context, the archival holdings of the archbishopric of Salzburg fortunately provide a wealth of material, proving the very modest impact in the early phases, when the money collected remained in the offertory boxes, only to be used in the 1440ies to strengthen the Council in its controversy with Pope Eugene IV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leviticus 25 details legislation for the jubilee, the year concluding seven cycles of seven years in which real property returns to its original family allotment. Many understand the jubilee as an impracticable fantasy while others have sought to uncover evidence of its observance in ancient Israel. In this essay, I move the conversation away from this binary of scholarly perception and instead engage the jubilee from the horizon of its plausibility as an institution in ancient Israelite society. By “plausible,” I do not mean that this legislation’s enactment was likely or actual; evaluating the institution’s “plausibility” is a determination of whether it was credible within the structures of Israelite and Judahite society. I contend that the jubilee was theoretically conceivable in this society because of analogous practices in the ancient Near East and the agrarian society that the Levitical jubilee presumes and in which it makes sense as a plausible institution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 'Luther and the Trajectories of Western Pilgrimage,' Matthew R. Anderson asserts that after his long trek from Erfurt in 1510-1511, monk and Protestant reformer Martin Luther's negative remembrances of Rome became one of the catalysts for his influential critique of pilgrimage. Luther's fear of social unrest, Protestant theological attacks on the doctrines of merit, and Luther's own personality solidified his antipathy to the practice. The Reformation led to the near-demise of pilgrimage in Protestant areas and the disruption of travel to those shrines that had an international draw. Because of this temporary eclipse, the rebirth of a form of international travel in the Romantic era that emphasized individualism, experience, and sentiment led to the coming of age of tourism, pilgrimage's transformation in Catholic territories, and the wide variety of contemporary practices now referred to as pilgrimage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess European patients' preferences regarding seven aspects of doctor-patient communication.Methods: 6049 patients from 31 European countries evaluated 21 doctor and 12 patient behaviours, through a patient-generated questionnaire (PCVq). Multilevel models explored the effects of patient characteristics, contextual and cultural dimensions on preferences.Results: Patients attributed more responsibility to doctors, by giving greater importance to doctor than to patient factors, in particular to Treating the patient as a partner and as a person and Continuity of care. Gender, age, education, the presence of chronic illness and two of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, Individualism and Indulgence, showed differential evaluations among patients. Women gave greater importance to all seven communication aspects, older patients to being prepared for the consultation, lower educated patients to Treating patient as a person and Thoughtful planning. Patients from countries with an indulgent background rated all seven communication aspects of greater importance. A more individualistic orientation was related to lower importance regarding the four doctor's factors and the patient factor Open and Honest.Conclusions: Treating the patient as a person and providing continuity of care emerged as universal values.Practice Implications: The findings should represent a landmark for the adaptation of patient-generated communication guidelines and programs in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: With the celebration of the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy indulgences have once again moved to the fore of Catholic imagination, with many pilgrims availing themselves of the opportunity to pass through a Door of Mercy or ‘Holy Door’ and thereby receive the jubilee indulgence. While the practice of indulgences has experienced something of a revival in popularity during recent papacies, the precise doctrine remains largely unrehearsed and unfamiliar, simultaneously evoking strong reactions of distaste and disquiet among many as memories of medieval abuse linger on. This article sets out the precepts of the most recent authoritative teaching on indulgences, itself almost fifty years old, before exploring the theological interpretation offered by Karl Rahner and tracing its gradual and largely anonymous appropriation in papal teaching through the post‐conciliar period. With Pope Francis promoting mercy as a central theme for his papacy and ecclesial vision, the paper closes by considering how he may be proposing a further re‐appropriation of indulgences which shifts attention from their post‐mortem efficacy to their capacity to establish a Franciscan reflexivity of mercy in the contemporary church. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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