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There is ample empirical literature on the contributions of different income sources to total income inequality. In contrast, studies estimating the contributions of income sources to income poverty are scarce. This paper presents a new decomposition of the Foster–Greer–Thorbecke poverty index, based on a marginal approach previously employed to decompose income inequality. We apply these marginal decompositions to data for 15 EU countries and classify six income sources according to their impact on inequality and poverty. Our results indicate that there are significant differences in the contributions of income sources to poverty compared to their respective contributions to inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest resources play a vital role in supporting the livelihoods of rural communities residing in forest-rich areas. In India, a forest-rich country, a significant proportion of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) is consumed locally, supporting numerous rural communities relying on forests for essential resources, such as firewood, timber, and NTFPs. This study focuses on two forest-dominant districts in West Bengal of India, namely, Jhargram District and Paschim Medinipur District. Furthermore, this study aims to enhance the understanding of forest-dependent communities by comparing the standard of living among different village classes. Thus, we categorized villages into three classes based on the distance from home to forests, including inner villages, fringe villages, and outer villages. Through focus group discussions and household surveys, we explored the sources of local economy, income sources of household, and reasons for economic diversification in different village classes. The study findings confirm that substantial variations existed in the income sources and the standard of living in these villages. Forest income varied dramatically among the three village classes, with inner villages having greater forest income than fringe villages and outer villages. Meanwhile, households in outer villages depended on forests and engaged in diverse economic activities for their livelihoods. Compared with inner and fringe villages, households in outer villages derived a significant portion of their income from livestock. This discrepancy can be attributed to challenges, such as inadequate transportation, communication, and underdeveloped market chains in inner villages. Moreover, these findings emphasize the need to develop sustainable forest management practices, create alternative income-generation opportunities, and improve infrastructure and market access in inner villages, as well as promote economic diversification in outer villages. Through targeted policy measures, these forest-rich regions can achieve improved livelihoods, enhanced standard of living, and increased resilience for their communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research seeks to identify and analyze the drivers affecting the future of the income sources of social security organization. The theoretical population was the managers of the social security organization and experts in this field. The sampling was done judgmentally, and the sample size amounts to 15 people. Data collection tools were interviews and questionnaires. As for the findings, 35 sub-drivers were classified as economic, socio-cultural, structural, financial and investment, policy, marketing, environmental and legal drivers. These drivers were screened by distributing expert questionnaires and using Binominal's test. 13 drivers have significance coefficient of less than five percent and were selected for final prioritization. These drivers were evaluated by the Copras method and account for three criteria of experts' expertise, certainty, and importance. The driver of using the capacity of FinTechs and their innovations for financing and investment had the highest priority. Accordingly, the concluding suggestions were: using digital financial technologies and artificial intelligence to increase investment efficiency, using new financing methods such as crowd-funding, avoiding divesting loss-making companies to the organization, and strengthening good and efficient governance in the holdings of the organization.

This study aims to determine the effect of human resource competence and income sources on financial management performance through organizational commitment to village government in Aceh. This research is quantitative descriptive. The instrument of data collection was using a questionnaire. The sample in this study is village officials who work in the village government, amounting to 150 people. In this study, the sampling method used proportional sampling. The data analysis tool used is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). From the results of data analysis obtained from several conclusions that the competence of human resources and sources of income have a significant effect on organizational commitment to village government in Aceh, and competence of human resources and sources of income have a significant effect on financial management performance in village government in Aceh as well as resource competence. Human resources and income sources indirectly affect financial management performance through organizational commitment to village governance in Aceh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractIncome distribution is found to be highly skewed among farm households with a Gini coefficient of 0.48. Most of the marginal and small farm households are in lower-income strata. Higher participation in pluriactivity and the highest Gini coefficient within each farm size category for marginal (0.50) and small farm size category households (0.45) highlight the tug of war for survival. Regression analysis revealed that less-educated and resource-poor farmers engaged themselves more in non-agricultural and unorganised sources of income, i.e., wages and non-farm business. Source-wise decomposition revealed that livestock and casual wages decrease income inequality. Hence, small holder farmer-centric farming systems and crops, low interest rate loans for women engaged in livestock rearing, agro-processing units and skill development centres to increase the share of non-farm income in total income are the key policy interventions.

In this research, rural poverty was identified based on United Nations guidelines and official Mexican statistics. We then analyzed the evolution of rural poverty and households that rely on self-consumption from 1992 to 2018. It was found, through this analysis of the evolution of inequality and distributive tools, that self-consumption has lost relevance as a source of income for poor rural households. By means of a regression model based on the decomposition of inequality, it was confirmed that self-consumption has decreased within the sources of rural household income even when poverty has increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The onset time of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) may be closely related to the working style and living habits of people, which are determined by different income sources in China. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to investigate the Circadian Variations in the occurrence of ICH from different sources of income. Methods This retrospective study enrolled 4,327 patients with first-ever ICH. Based on the time of day at which the patients developed symptoms, the classifiable onset time was assigned to one of eight three-hour intervals. And based on different income sources, they were categorized into three groups: Farmers, Wage-earners, and Freelancers. Demographic and risk factors of patients were then summarized, and the circadian variation of the 3 groups of patients’ known time of onset and those stratified by sex and age were analyzed. Results The frequency of ICH onset exhibited significant circadian variation among the 3 income groups, demonstrating a bimodal distribution in the daytime, with a nadir during the night (all P

This research was conducted on mountain ecological villages (MEVs) which were established in South Korea since 1995 to identify problems and find ways to revitalize the MEVs. To this end, the construction and operation status of MEVs were investigated. Besides, the structure of major facilities and income sources was analyzed by dividing the types of MEVs into those of living environment improvement (LEI), simple income (SI), and self-reliance base (SRB) types. As a result, the LEI type lacked the number of people to work in the village and the average household income was 59.6% of the total average of MEVs. Also, it was difficult to maintain and manage the village facilities due to the aging of the facilities and insufficient joint revenue generation. And it was difficult to manage the village facilities due to the aging of the facilities and insufficient joint revenue generation. The SI type was generating the number of farming households and non-farming income above the average of the entire MEVs, although the proportion of the laborable population was relatively low. However, seasonal limitations of accommodation facilities, experience programs, and urban and mountain village interchanges were insufficient. The SRB type had a high proportion of the laborable population, a relatively large proportion of the return-to-the-rural population, and the income structure was also diversified. However, it was suffering from a lack of budget for the promotion of the village and the securing of personnel to be in charge continuously. To revitalize the MEVs, income sources will have to be diversified to cover the expenses required to run the village on their own as reinforcement of internal capabilities. Besides, it will need a strategy that can actively utilize the capital and manpower from outside. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Understanding how living arrangements may affect psychological well-being (PWB) is critical in China, a society with the largest older population in the world. However, few studies have examined the moderating effect of income sources on the relationship between living arrangements and PWB. Our aim was to examine whether living arrangements are associated with PWB and whether income sources moderate this association. Methods The data were drawn from the third (2002) to sixth (2011/2012) waves of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). Six questions reflecting older adults’ well-being were used to measure PWB. Living arrangements were classified as follows: living alone, living with family and living in an institution. Income sources were categorized into financially independent, supported by children, and governmental support. We performed random-effects ordinal probit models to examine the association of living arrangements with PWB and the moderating effect of income sources on this relationship. Results We included a total sample of 30,899 observations for 16,020 respondents aged 65 and over during 9-year follow-up. Older adults living with family (β = .29, p

I discuss a new approach which decomposes inequality into the contributions of population groups by income sources. I estimate a matrix with rows and columns which indicate different population groups and income sources, respectively, with each element indicating the marginal change in the inequality contribution of a group (as measured by the Recentered Influence Function) when an income source is added and with all contributions adding up to overall inequality. The approach can be used to analyze the contributions of groups and sources to the trend in inequality over time (or between distributions), disentangling the effect of changes in the composition of the population by groups and changes in their income distribution by sources. An empirical application characterizes the distributional change in Spain following the Great Recession, highlighting the disequalizing role of the massive increase in unemployment or the equalizing effect of social protection through different population groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examines reciprocal financial relationships' influence on shrimp fishers' income sources and their motivation in Rivers State, Nigeria, fishing communities. A mixed methods design was employed using a semi-structured questionnaire, interview guide and checklist to collect data from 125 shrimp fishers and 20 Key informants. Data on shrimp fishers' financial contributions were subjected to UCINET 6.647 Net draw to generate a sociogram. Fishers' income sources and motivating factors were subjected to content analysis and multiple regression. The results showed that shrimp fishers in Rivers State pay dues, contributions and donations to obtain revolving loans from their network and receive remittances from relatives. The sums of money are invested in fishing equipment and off-fishing ventures. 44% of fishers relied on remittances and loans for investment. However, enabling institutional framework and support from external agencies are motivating factors to join a social network which aims at improving income sources among shrimp fishers in line with Sustainable Development Goals 16 and 17. Shrimp fishers who engage in a reciprocal financial relationship have their income sources improved by diversifying into off-fishing ventures. The study recommends that Shrimp fishers register as cooperatives to attract more support from government and donor agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The onset time of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) may be closely related to the working style and living habits of people, which are determined by different income sources in China. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to investigate the Circadian Variations in the occurrence of ICH from different sources of income.Methods: This retrospective study enrolled 4,327 patients with first-ever ICH. Based on the time of day at which the patients developed symptoms, the classifiable onset time was assigned to one of eight three-hour intervals. And based on different income sources, they were categorized into three groups: Farmers, Wage-earners, and Freelancers. Demographic and risk factors of patients were then summarized, and the circadian variation of the 3 groups of patients' known time of onset and those stratified by sex and age were analyzed.Results: The frequency of ICH onset exhibited significant circadian variation among the 3 income groups, demonstrating a bimodal distribution in the daytime, with a nadir during the night (all P < 0.001). Three groups showed a significant initial peak between 06:01 and 09:00, and the same peak was observed in their subgroups of sex and age. In the 3 income source groups, there was a smaller second peak that between 15:01 and 18:00 for Farmers and Wage-earners and 18:01 and 21:00 for Freelancers. After stratification by sex and age, the second peak was between 18:01 and 21:00 for female in Farmers, female in Freelancers, under 65 years of age in Wage-earners and 65 years or older in Freelancers, while 15:01 and 18:00 for the other groups.Conclusions: Different circadian variations of ICH onset time are found in patients with different income sources in southwest China's Chongqing Municipality cohort. Moreover, the frequency and distribution pattern of peak hours may be closely related to the working style and living habits of people with different income sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Understanding how living arrangements may affect psychological well-being (PWB) is critical in China, a society with the largest older population in the world. However, few studies have examined the moderating effect of income sources on the relationship between living arrangements and PWB. Our aim was to examine whether living arrangements are associated with PWB and whether income sources moderate this association.Methods: The data were drawn from the third (2002) to sixth (2011/2012) waves of the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS). Six questions reflecting older adults' well-being were used to measure PWB. Living arrangements were classified as follows: living alone, living with family and living in an institution. Income sources were categorized into financially independent, supported by children, and governmental support. We performed random-effects ordinal probit models to examine the association of living arrangements with PWB and the moderating effect of income sources on this relationship.Results: We included a total sample of 30,899 observations for 16,020 respondents aged 65 and over during 9-year follow-up. Older adults living with family (β = .29, p < .001) and those living in an institution (β = .34, p < .001) had stronger PWB than those living alone; moreover, support from children (β= -.24, p < .001) or from the government (β= -.08, p < .05) has a negative effect on PWB compared to the effect of financial self-support. Living in an institution with support from children (β= -.22, p < .05) led to lower PWB than living alone with financial self-support. The opposite result was observed for older adults living with their family and supported by the government (β = .16, p < .05).Conclusions: Our analysis provides a significant contribution to the existing literature on the relationship between living arrangements and PWB in China. We recognize that living with family or in an institution leads to better PWB than does living alone. In addition, financial support from the government can moderate this association. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past decades, sustained economic growth in emerging countries (and among them, BRICS countries) has attracted much attention in the western world. Multinational companies have been lured by the growing purchasing power of a significant part of the population, often presented as the “promised land” of consumer spending in durable goods, high tech services and fashion products. Of course, increasing incomes imply also significant socio-economic changes within these countries as well. A growing number of studies have been carried in order to track the evolution of income distribution in BRICS countries, and the formation and composition of a social group usually called “middle class” in western countries (Kharas (2010), SIEMS (2010), Levada (2012), Ernst and Young (2013), Kochhar R., Oates R. (2015)). In this paper we try to assess the impact of recent macroeconomic fluctuations on Russian households income levels. We analyse the Russian trajectory in three different ways. First, we compare the evolution of the “middle class” in Russia with other (B)RIC and western countries, using the wealthbased definition of this group proposed in the Global Wealth Report (Crédit Suisse Research Institute, 2015). Second, we go deeper into the Russian case in order to show how regional disparities regarding incomes distribution can be interpreted, considering the country’s recent macroeconomic trajectory. For this purpose, we build a productive typology of the Russian regions and study the link between each type and the level of income inequalities, using the varying structures in sources of household’s incomes as a possible explanation of regional variations. We conclude by an assessment of the remaining challenges for incomes policy in Russia

Jobs and income sources are among the social history elements and analyzing their types, scopes, origins and dimensions can reveal new aspects of people’s life in the past. The relative inattention of common historical resources to the social history leads us to use other resources which are not classified as historical resources at the first glance. Poetry books can be cited as one of this type of resources. In these poetry books, many of issues and elements related to social life of people are addressed. Extracting and collecting data about them is a new way in order to understand the concept and reality of people’s life in the past. Using a descriptive approach and by investigating into and classifying the jobs and income sources in five different poetry books from Iranian poets living during the 14th and 15th centuries, this research attempts to find out to what extent the jobs and income sources in these poetry books are influenced by religious teachings. This study reveals that between the time of Mogul invasion destructions and the developments during Safavid dominion in Iran, religious teachings had a strong impact on religion-related jobs including three types of jobs namely jobs related to religious worships (three jobs ), administration of social-religious rules (three jobs) and education and promotion of religion (four jobs); and also on religious-based jobs including two types of jobs namely the ones related to administration of religious rules and ceremonies (five jobs), building and management of religious places (three jobs) as well as income sources (four jobs).

This paper estimates Spanish Personal Income Tax (IRPF) evasion by income sources, between 2005 and 2008, applying the methodology of Feldman and Slemrod (Econ J 117:327-352, 2007) to the IRPF Taxpayers Panel database published by the Instituto de Estudios Fiscales (Spanish Institute for Fiscal Studies). From the estimates carried out, four conclusions can be drawn. First, that the greatest tax compliance throughout the period is found in labour income and the lowest in income from movable capital. Second, that the level of compliance is, in general, lower in 2008 than in 2005. Third, that, with the exception of income from movable capital, compliance is greater for the top 50% of taxpayers. Fourth, that the lowest level of compliance is found in the group of regions with better structural economic characteristics: Aragon, Catalonia and Madrid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how changes in the structure of household income have affected inequality in urban China during the reform period. We conducted an inequality decomposition analysis by income sources using the household-level data from the Chinese Household Income Project Surveys for 1988, 1995 and 2002. The analysis reveals that the contribution of wages and salaries to inequality has declined over the years. Business income, which served as the inequality enhancing component in 1988, has turned into an inequality reducing force in 1995 and 2002. The marginal analysis reveals that 1% increase in business income neutralises about two-thirds of the increase in inequality caused by an equivalent increase in wages and salaries. Some business issues and policy options are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper proposes a simple algorithm based on a matrix formulation to compute the Esteban and Ray (ER) polarization index. It then shows how the algorithm introduced leads to quite a simple decomposition of polarization by income sources. Such a breakdown was not available hitherto. The decomposition we propose will thus allow one to determine the sign, as well as the magnitude, of the impact of the various income sources on the ER polarization index. A simple empirical illustration based on EU data is provided.

Copyright of Omer Halisdemir Universitesi Iktisadi ve Idari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi is the property of Omer Halisdemir University, Faculty of Economics & Admistrative Sciene and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Despite the prominence of voluntary organisations in public life and their high policy profile, there is a need for improved evidence regarding the funding base of individual voluntary organisations. This is relevant to theoretical debates about the role of such organisations in a mixed economy of welfare as well as to substantive questions about the balance between public and voluntary initiative. Using unique data for a sample of 7000 charities in England and Wales, for the first time we describe the distribution of charities according to the composition of their income. Importantly, the results illustrate the diversity of organisations with charitable status. They therefore serve to illustrate the different roles that charities play in a mixed economy. They also provide empirical context for substantive discussions relating to the identity of the charitable sector, including the notion of its 'hybridity'-the extent to which an individual organisation draws upon a plurality of financial sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Economía Aplicada is the property of Revista de Economia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Nonprofit sports clubs generate revenue from a variety of sources. One of the main income categories is donations. Previous research only analyzed the amount of money generated through donations, but not the influencing factors. The purpose of this study is to investigate determinants of donations for nonprofit sports clubs. The study is based on the public goods theory (Weisbrod in 'The economics of nonprofit institutions.' 'Studies in structure and policy.' Oxford University Press, New York, pp 21-44, ) and the contract failure theory (Hansmann in Yale Law J 89(5):835-902, ) and makes use of an unbalanced panel data set from a nationwide online survey of nonprofit sports clubs in Germany ( n = 41,343). The results show that particularly the provision of elite sport and the promotion of young talents positively influence the reception of donations. Moreover, sports clubs caring for social aspects, companionship, and conviviality as core values are able to generate higher revenues from donations. The same applies to clubs employing paid staff. Contrary, a commercial orientation was found to have a negative effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The society increasingly puts more value on the natural environment, on its protection and preservation, the context in which many national parks are created. The main objectives of a national park are ecosystem protection and recreation. The balance between nature conservation and tourism leads to a series of appropriate measures in administration, management and development of national parks, in particular limiting the number of tourists and severe tourist traffic guidance. The main problem of management is related to insufficient government funds and to identify other funding opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proclaiming a protected area (PA) is an effective strategy for establishing a perdurable ecosystem, exerting trenchant socioeconomic impacts on local communities. Determining PAs' effect on the household livelihoods of the residents is essential for harmonizing ecological protection measures and human livelihood development. Yet few studies concerning the socioeconomic effects of PAs on indigenous household livelihoods have been conducted in China's protected areas. Therefore, household surveys were conducted in Three-River-Source Region (TRSR) to examine livelihood changes occurring before and after the establishment of the Three-River-Source National Park (TRSNP) and to limn the factors responsible for the changes of household livelihoods in the PA and the nearby non-protected area (NPA). Results showed that in TRSR, grazing activities were restricted in the PAs after the implementation of the TRSNP, yet the restrictions did not result in a significant decrease in grazing income. Subsidies from the PA were a large portion of total household income, partly resulting in higher total income in the PA than in the NPA. Once subsidies cease, household incomes in the PA may substantially decrease. The number of income sources increased in both the PA and NPA, but the PA stimulated households to find alternative income sources to secure livelihoods. The number of the labor force and livestock and the areas of farmland and grassland were the primary factors affecting total household income. Our results suggest that the policy of PAs' establishment should be implemented continuing in TRSR to protect the environment. Prudent consideration and multifaceted guidance are still required to strengthen local livelihoods in TRSR. Balanced ecological and economic development is possible when appropriate management approaches such as franchising are adopted. • Restrictions of grazing activities did not lead to a significant decrease in income. • The number of income sources increased in both protected and non-protected areas. • The characteristic of household head is a critical factor affecting livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article tries to reveal the field reality in East Kalimantan, especially the preferences of villagers in terms of income source and land use, to ascertain the implications for Indonesia's national REDD-plus policy or one of the emerging regimes under UNFCCC. In forest lands, the villagers have no expectations for labour opportunities involving logging and planting trees in concession areas. In non-forest lands, villagers want to continue practicing swidden agriculture, to expand traditional rubber gardens, and to develop commercialised rubber plantations. They also think that rattan gardens and orchards are important. In order to suppress competition over land used for coal mining and oil palm plantations, to ensure villagers' rights to resources, and to conserve natural resources, it is recommended that Indonesia introduce programmes to support, as REDD-plus activities, the sustainable management of remaining forest and forest-like land uses such as orchards, rattan gardens, and traditional rubber gardens. This study shows the importance of not confining one's perspective to the REDD-plus policy framework determined by the government, but rather evaluating it by checking actual conditions in the field to aid constructive discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a general procedure for decomposing income inequality measures by income sources. The methods of decomposition proposed are based on the Shapley value and extensions of the Shapley value of transferable utility cooperative games. In particular, we find that Owen's value can find an interesting application in this context.We show that the axiomatization by the potential of Hart and Mas-Colell remains valid in the presence of the domain restriction of inequality indices. We also examine the properties of these decomposition rules and perform a comparison with Shorrocks' decomposition rule properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was conducted on the Van Gujjar tribe inhabiting a sub-Himalayan tract in the North Western Himalayas of Uttarakhand State, India. The Van Gujjars have been practicing transmigration over hundreds of years. They migrate each year with their households and livestock between summer and winter pastures. A few years ago with the announcement of the establishment of the Rajaji National Park, the tribe has been forced out of the forest area and rehabilitated outside the park, which has affected their lifestyle. The newly established rehabilitation colony in the Gandikhata area of Haridwar District of Uttarakhand State was taken as a case study. The aims of the present study were to understand and evaluate the socio-economic status of the Van Gujjars in their newly established rehabilitation colony, the utilization pattern of forest resources by the tribe and their relative preference for selective trees for various uses. A total of 176 households were interviewed (giving equal weight to all economic classes and family every size) by using pre-structured questionnaires. The education level was very low (12.9%) and the average income per household was recorded as Rs. 36000 (approximately $ 803) per year. The major source of income was dairy production (80.6%) followed by labor employment (13.9%), NTFPs (4.2%) and agricultural production (1.4%). More than 90% of fuel wood and fodder is extracted from the forest. The average fuel wood and fodder consumptions per household per day were recorded as 25.86 and 21.58 kg, respectively. A total of 35 species of cultivated plants and 89 species of wild plants were found to be utilized as food sources. Selectively 25 wild tree species are well known as being used by the Van Gujjars as fodder, fuel wood, agricultural implements, household articles, dye, medicine, fiber and other products. According to their utility value, the most preferred and useful tree species is Ougeinia oojeinensis, followed by Terminalia alata, Bombax ceiba, Shorea robusta and Dalbergia sissoo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study explored forest resource-use patterns to understand villagers' dependency on forests in four temperate villages situated in two forested sites in Garhwal Himalaya: Mandal and Khalla in the Mandal area, Chamoli District, and Chaundiyar and Dikholi in the Chaurangikhal area, Uttarkashi District. Although the literacy rate in the villages was quite high, due to lack of employment opportunities people still invariably depend on forests for their livelihood. In all the study villages more than 75% of fodder and fuelwood were extracted from the forest. The pressure exerted by human and bovine populations, coupled with unsustainable management policies, has resulted in the destruction of forest cover and ecological degradation. Agriculture (which is 70% rainfed in the Mandal area and 90% rainfed in Chaurangikhal) and employment as laborers were the main occupations of people in the study areas; in addition, remittance income (8.6% in the Mandal area and 21.3% in Chaurangikhal) and dairy faming accounted for a major portion of total household income. The study revealed a positive relationship between income and livestock population (0.995), which reveals the strong role of animal husbandry in the rural economy. The equally positive relationship between income and fodder consumption (0.930) can be attributed to extraction of large quantities of fodder to sustain dairy farming for commercial purposes. The correlation between income and fuelwood consumption was found to be negative (20.882), the likely reason being poor economic conditions, leading to dependency on the forest for fuelwood as a free source of energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parks generally offer the most important component of nature-based tourism (ecotourism), but obtain little from the benefits it brings about. The revenue obtained by national parks or other protected areas are generally centralised and managed by different agencies, so only a part of this revenue is coming back to the protected area where it was collected. The degree of return of visitors, the duration of visits, the visitors' satisfaction and the quality of services - all these will suffer when the return rate of the collected revenue is reduced. Many governments see ecotourism as being a very important economic instrument for a sustainable development. It's a shame that many of these governments do not invest enough in the personnel training, in the infrastructure or in other resources necessary to support this type of tourism. This leads to the degradation of many of these protected areas under the action of tourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the persistent inverse relationship between family income and mortality, no one has examined the effect of distinct income sources or income portfolios on mortality risk. We link the National Health Interview Survey to the Multiple Cause of Death file and use hazard models to examine income-related mortality across four age groups. Income from jobs, self-employment, interest, and dividends each predicts lower mortality at the younger, middle, and early old ages. Diverse income portfolios buffer against mortality risk at all ages, net of the amount of income received. These findings illuminate the various dimensions of income that shape U.S. mortality risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continued population growth in densely populated parts of Sub-Saharan Africa makes it harder for youth to choose agriculture as main source of income. We investigate whether near landless youth can access rented land as a source of income. We used data collected in 2016 (from 1138 youths in 119 youth business groups) and 2019 (from 2427 youths in 246 business groups), in five districts of Tigray region of Ethiopia. We find that 42% of the youth had access to rented land in 2016 and 47% in 2019. The average area rented land was 0.66 ha in 2016 and 0.74 ha in 2019. Access to rented land, though constrained, accounted close to 70% in 2016 and 61% in 2019 of the average operated land by youth group members. Male youth who own oxen and ploughs are much more likely to rent land whereas female youth group members appeared generally disadvantaged in their access to rented land and other complementary sources of income. Sharecropping dominated as the main from of land rental contract covering 94% of the contracts in 2016 and 90% of the contracts in 2019. Utilizing a trust game to elicit trust and trustworthiness of the youth, we found a positive association between trustworthiness and particularly accessing land from non-relatives. The prohibition of land sales limits the potential of the "agricultural ladder" to facilitate youth climbing out of poverty through purchase of land. Overall, the land rental market has become more important for land access of land-poor youth and is likely to grow in importance to facilitate rural transformation and diversification of rural livelihoods as land scarcity grows and market access improves. Thus, it appears that the land rental market has helped many of these very land-poor youth to establish sustainable land-based livelihoods. While the land rental market does not function perfectly, we recommend not to intervene to change the fundamental characteristics or to impose area restrictions in the market as has been attempted recently in Ethiopia. Such restrictions can easily cause more harm than good. • This study examines near landless youths' access to rented land as income source. • We used data of 3565 sample youth business-group members in Tigray region, Ethiopia. • Close to 42% of the youth in 2016 and 47% in 2019 had access to rented land. • Male youth who own oxen and ploughs are much more likely to be able to rent land. • Trust and trustworthiness enhance youths' access to rented land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]