Search

The Indonesian school principal is a highly respected individual who serves as the critical link between the school and the community as well as local and national authorities. While most principals are well educated and capable, their positions are too limited. Most principals simply implement educational policy whereas they could and should be creative leaders of educational institutions. Educational reform in Indonesia has led to improvements in education, but it has also stifled school-level initiative and community involvement in education. A new balance must be struck that expands the responsibilities of the principal. This study examined variations in the management practices and resources of the principals of six diverse elementary schools in the Sumatera Barat and West Java provinces. The schools were ranked on several issues: independence from regulation, comprehensive management, entrepreneurship, proportion of resources financed from client revenues, average direct client costs, and efficiency. Several recommendations are made based on the study, including the need for clearer roles for educational players, decentralization, increased government financial support, improved intergovernmental communication, improved community involvement and awareness, and increased administrator training. (JPT)

The Educational Policy and Planning (EPP) Project assists the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) in establishing an information system to improve policy analysis and formulation. There are five elements of the project strategy: increase the ability of MOEC staff to create and use information for use in policy research, strengthen the internal management and organization of the Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development, support research and analysis, expand capacity to conduct policy research and analysis, and develop planning and information systems at provincial and district levels. The EPP and the Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems (IEES) project are assisting the MOEC enter its second 25-year planning period. This report covers several areas of the involvement of the EPP and IEES in developing the Indonesian education system. Subjects covered in the report include an overview of the EPP; the partnership of the IEES and the EPP; developing an integrated management information system; the quality of basic education; the quality and efficiency of vocational/technical education; strengthening local education capacity; educational indicators for policy purposes; teacher education; curriculum reform; developing provincial sector review capacity; and education, the economy, and development. (JPT)

The first of the two reports contained in this document is a preliminary analysis, by Dr. James Cobbe, of the data collected on an extension of a study of the upgrading program for primary school (Sekolah Dasar, or SD) to Diploma Dua (D2) using the Swadana (fully self-financed) delivery system. The extension of the study covers the six current delivery systems in four provinces, focussing on the economic and financial concerns of SD teachers only. Average annual total out-of-pocket private costs for participants vary by program, age group, and province. For all of the programs, costs are being borne by the participants, with little help from outside sources. The rates of return for participants vary considerably with delivery system and with age and rank. As presently structured, the D2 program is in general not an attractive economic investment opportunity for SD teachers. The second report, by Dr. James Cobbe and Dr. Ibrahim Musa, summarizes in English those parts of the study of the Guru SD-D2 upgrading program that deal with the private costs and benefits to teachers of the Swadana program. A questionnaire covered three areas of expenditures of the program: direct, indirect, and additional costs. Data show that the Swadana program is a poor investment for teachers. Thus, some subsidy to all teachers in D2 programs would be necessary to complete upgrading of teachers in a reasonable amount of time. (JPT)

This literature review, while not comprehensive, is aimed at informing the Strengthening Local Education Capacity project under way in Indonesia. Strategies that strengthen educational capacities at the school and local levels were reviewed, followed by strategies for local governance. Two school governance models, public choice and public service, were reviewed. The public-choice model proposes moving closer to a private-market solution by allowing parents greater school choice through privatization and voucher systems. Other countries' practical experience with this model already indicates deleterious consequences for equity and access. The public-service model aims to change methods of providing services through collectivist and consumerist strategies. Local governance encompasses two dimensions (political and legal) influencing local elites' delivery of educational services. In a decentralized system, the local level will increasingly be required to provide the linkage between the local and central levels. Three local-governance strategies are reviewed: local institutional development, promoted by large donor agencies, especially USAID; the learning-process approach, based on five successful Asian decentralization experiences; and third sector collaboration, recognizing the importance of commitment and support from voluntary organizations. (Includes an executive summary and a topically organized listing of 128 references.) (MLH)

Improvement of primary school education in Indonesia has been sought since a national standardized curriculum was established in 1976. Curriculum reform centered on requirements for teaching and learning materials, libraries and library books, and other learning equipment. School management and teacher performance have also been emphasized. The need to improve the quality of primary education was reaffirmed in 1986 and is included in the Fifth Five-Year Development Plan. The aim of this study was to produce information and policy recommendations on how to improve primary schools. This study examined communities and schools to estimate primary school attendance, identify factors that influence participation, measure sixth-grade achievement, gauge the progress in different provinces, rank schools by achievement, and identify factors responsible for differential achievement in schools. Four major research questions were posed in this study: (1) What is the quality of Indonesian basic education? (2) What causes educational differences within the country? (3) How is the primary school system responsible for test results? and (4) What factors influence school quality? In addition to an introduction, this study includes chapters on problems and issues in primary education, disparity in academic achievement, school quality and academic achievement, and conclusions and recommendations. An appendix contains a list of variables used in the analysis. (Contains 30 references.) (JPT)

External inefficiency in education--inequity between the characteristics of graduates and the job market--is a problem in Indonesia and many other countries. Job markets at the junior secondary level are very tight in Indonesia with low levels of unemployment at all ages, short job-search times, and high real rates of return. Unemployment, however, among the senior secondary vocational and senior secondary general school graduates is high, even though the real rates of return are also high. The same is true for college and university graduates. Rates decrease, however, as years pass after graduation. There are several reasons for this external inefficiency: underinvestment in secondary education, increased use of market signals for planning and annual budgeting decisions, excess"social demand" for higher education and insufficient resource recovery, inaccurate selection criteria, and inadequate educational financing methods. Several policy options could be implemented. The importance of education to economic growth and to reducing inequality can be substantial. But continuous improvements must be made in the external and internal efficiency of education and preparation for jobs. Chapters include information on universal basic education, market signals and labor market analysis, human resource development, financing education, the economics of school expansion, higher education, and graduate job placement. (JPT)

Outcomes of the Junior Secondary Education Improvement Project (JSEIP), implemented in Botswana during 1985-91, are presented in this final report. The project's purpose was to help the Botswana government expand its 7-year basic education program (primary) to 9 years (primary and junior secondary). The first and second sections provide the context for the report, and the third section offers an overview of the project's purposes and goals. Section 4 describes how the project applies to Botswana's educational goals. Ways in which the instructional systems design (ISD) approach has been adapted to the country's educational context are examined in section 5. The sixth section summarizes change strategies that were used in syllabus and material development in each junior secondary subject area. The seventh and eighth sections document the development of the Ministry of Education in terms of curriculum development, teacher education, and advisors' area activities and products. The program's major accomplishments are summarized in section 9. Section 10 offers recommendations for sustaining and building upon project outcomes, particularly with regard to a potential 1992 Basic Education Consolidation project. Some of the lessons learned from the experience are reviewed in section 11. One table, two figures, and lists of JSEIP personnel, trainees, reports, and publications are included. (LMI)

Two papers on classroom teaching techniques and classroom environment in Botswana are presented. The first paper, "Is Teacher Training Associated with Teachers' Classroom Behavior? A Study of Botswana Junior Secondary School Teachers" by David W. Chapman and Conrad W. Snyder, Jr., investigates the extent to which teaching behaviors differed across 212 teachers with different levels of formal preservice teacher training. Results indicated that the level of training (untrained, diploma, bachelor's degree, or postgraduate degree) accounted for 25 percent of the variance in the predictor variables. Groups did not differ much on use of feedback, class discussion, small group discussion, and overall use of questions. Untrained teachers gave greater attention to lesson preparation and student development. The second paper, "Classroom Affect and Complexity: Ecological Perspective of Botswana Junior Secondary Schools" by Conrad Wesley Snyder, Jr. and others, asserts that affect valuations can accurately reflect the qualities of academic environments. Observation of 603 Botswana classrooms of 212 teachers at the junior secondary level resulted in ratings of 8 affect and structural scales: complexity of the instructional approach, lesson difficulty for students, student uncertainty about lesson concepts, teacher satisfaction, student satisfaction, student interest, teacher enthusiasm, and student attentiveness to instruction. References accompany each paper. (JDD)

Declining school quality is one of the most serious problems facing Third World countries--particularly in Africa. Economic constraints limit opportunities to enhance teacher morale and performance even while upgrading teachers has become the central component of most efforts to reverse educational decline. While the most powerful incentives clearly tie direct compensation to the performance of the target behavior, resource limitations prompted increased interest in low-cost incentives. Kemmerer suggests that performance is directly linked to the quality and quantity of: (1) remuneration; (2) instructional support; (3) instructional supervision; (4) training; and (5) career opportunities. A sixth influence relates to the degree of community support for teachers and school reform. To improve teachers' satisfaction and performance, Botswana initiated a major reform of junior secondary education. To assess its effectiveness, classroom observations were conducted of 549 teachers in 50 classrooms. Teacher satisfaction is related to the quantity of training and the degree of instructional supervision, community support, and career opportunities. The most direct incentive, housing, appears unrelated to satisfaction. A paradox for school reformers is that increased job satisfaction may not improve performance or student achievement, because satisfied teachers may resist efforts to change. (40 endnotes) (TEJ)

An interpretive account of two schools participating in the piloting of a new English program in Botswana junior secondary schools is presented in this paper. Methodology involved observation; analyses of school documents and student texts; and interviews with students, teachers, and administrators. Based on the perspective that teaching is an interactive exchange mediated by language, the study sought to describe the nature of classroom interactions in Botswana junior secondary schools. Examples of oral and written texts produced by teachers and students during lessons are described. With regard to communicating messages, teachers saw their goal as one of transmitting the information needed to pass the examination. This resulted in a lack of student cognitive engagement and in an emphasis on authority. With regard to creating meaning through communication, students concentrated on replicating rather than "re-presenting" information. With regard to language and learning, teachers' use of English as a second language hindered students' ability to develop language and communication skills. A conclusion is that as long as teachers rely on a transmission-of-information approach to teaching, students will be constrained by the imposed frameworks of others' knowledge. Two figures are included. Appendices contain sample lessons. (Contains 7 references.) (LMI)

This publication documents the ongoing efforts of the Government of Nepal to train primary school teachers using a multi-faceted distance learning system. At the heart of this system are radio broadcasts designed especially for untrained primary school teachers. A case study of the Radio Education Teacher Training Project (RETTP) is presented in four parts. The first part provides a brief overview of Nepal's sociopolitical development in the past 40 years with particular reference to changes in educational policy begun under the National Education System Plan (1970-76). Part 2 summarizes the RETTP's critical attributes and benchmarks, including the evolution of key course components and the impact of major policy shifts which occurred in 1984 and 1987. A comparative cost-effectiveness analysis of the RETTP's latest program, Basic Teacher Training, and its conventional face-to-face alternatives is presented in part 3. The study concludes in part 4 with a summary of the lessons that Nepal's experiences with the distance training of teachers offer to policy makers elsewhere. Fifteen tables providing cost analyses are appended. (Contains 31 references and 14 tables/figures.) (LL)

The progress of an Improving the Efficiency of Educational Systems (IEES) Project initiative toward developing a prototype indicator system for tracking the overall education systems in participating countries, is described in this interim report. Two needed dimensions were identified during the development of the model: (1) incorporate qualitative data on educational processes into the model; and (2) provide for variations by country in the design characteristics. The first section of this document describes the conceptual analysis of educational indicator systems. The second section describes the prototype model of primary education, which consists of stages based on context, input, process, output, and outcomes. The development process envisaged and now under way for host country clarification of the model is described in the third section. The fourth section discusses the potential for using the indicator system for both incountry educational planning and staff training purposes. Plans for information dissemination are also described. The conclusion emphasizes the importance of place and process in developing a theoretical framework. The original IEES plan was adapted to engage host-country participants in a dialogue about collaborative design of more flexible and location-specific systems. One figure is included. The appendix contains definitions of model domains with their proposed indicators. (Contains 15 references.) (LMI)

This monograph identifies appropriate quantitative indicators of educational effectiveness and efficiency, and discusses how such indicators should be used to assess education at multiple levels of the system. It focuses on the practical aspects of introducing effectiveness and efficiency concepts/measures into the deliberations of educational practitioners. The first part deals with the conceptual and definitional issues related to the measurement of education effectiveness and efficiency. It reviews the appropriateness of the application of the efficiency model to education and proposes specific definitions for common terms. The second part involves indicators of educational effectiveness--the first chapter with input and process measures, and the second with output and outcome measures. The role of qualitative indicators is also discussed. The third part reviews basic cost issues and demonstrates how efficiency analysis is conducted under four alternative forms: benefit-cost, cost-effectiveness, least-cost, and cost-utility analyses. Part 4 assesses the policy relevance of indicators as they relate to the development and use of educational management information systems. It concludes with a brief review and set of recommendations to improve the practical relevance of efficiency considerations to educational systems and institutions. Thirteen tables, four figures, and an extensive bibliography are included. (LMI)

This report focuses on guidance and counseling training of guidance practitioners in Botswana. The introduction notes that currently in Botswana many schools have a guidance teacher and/or volunteer for the position who is, more likely, to be chosen by the headmaster. The status of counselor training is examined. The roles and functions which should be contained in a comprehensive and systematic program of preservice and inservice training are discussed. These include: program development; counseling; pupil appraisal; educational and occupational planning; referral; placement; parent help; staff consulting; research; and public relations. Core skills important in the training of the teacher-counselor are examined. A cooperative approach for maximizing limited resources is suggested. The capacity of the guidance and counseling unit is discussed. A phased development is recommended that would begin with the selection and training of four Regional Guidance Officers. Administrative location of the counseling and guidance unit is discussed. It is noted that the development of a career information system is critical to a successful guidance program. A section on career ladders claims that with the development of two new professional tracks, teacher-counselors and teacher-advisors, it is an auspicious time to consider a career ladder for each of these positions. (ABL)

Curriculum reform in Indonesia during the past 2 decades has been marked by several themes. These themes include an increased emphasis on educational outcomes, greater standardization in instructional practices, improved teacher quality, and increased locally relevant curricula. Some problems recognized include an overloading of instructional time and a widening gap between demand for instructional materials and available supplies. The Scope of Work for the team responsible for this report included the following tasks: document the curriculum development and implementation process; assess curriculum in terms of scope, sequence, and complexity; review textbook production and distribution; determine the impact of expanding school from 6 to 9 years on curriculum content and objectives; identify key curriculum problems and formulate possible solutions; and highlight priority actions the Ministry of Education can take to prepare for the sixth 5-year plan. Curriculum used in primary schools has moved toward greater student involvement and a focus on the learning process as well as content. However, the curriculum has not been coordinated across grade levels to ensure it is complementary and does not repeat earlier teachings. Three appendices contain: a list of persons interviewed; a list of 10 references; and the report "Low Cost Learning: Supplement to an Analysis of the Status of Curriculum Reform and Textbook Production in Indonesia." (JPT)

This report presents information on the Improving the Efficiency of Educational System (IEES) Project Policy Research Initiative, which sought to improve educational capacity at the local level in Botswana and Indonesia. In Botswana, interviews were conducted with approximately 1,450 households and 20 policy makers. In Indonesia, 820 parents, 144 community leaders, 59 headmasters, 60 PTA chairpersons, and 35 village heads were interviewed from 70 public and private schools. Findings indicate that in general, communities, especially rural ones, cannot meet educational costs in excess of existing ones. This raises the question of whether an equitable funding formula can be developed to balance the disparities between rich and poor areas. Given the constraint of extremely limited government resources and lack of a balanced funding mechanism, it is expected that the expansion of the two educational systems will create further inequities between schools, communities, and regions. Six tables are included. Appendices contain status and research reports for each country. (LMI)

Haiti's Incentives to Improve Basic Education (IIBE) or Project Bilteral d'Education (PROBED) program seeks to stimulate improvements in educational quality and efficiency in private primary schools. The program surpasses other efforts because of: (1) unusually thorough preparation; (2) rapid assumption of management by Haitians; (3) a participatory management system; (4) midpoint transformation from contract to grant structure; (5) contractual links with beneficiaries; and (6) selective links with the public sector. To continue institutional development, IIBE should assess the budgetary and training needs of personnel, coordinate the examination of individuals and unit functions, and allocate resources for the development of the independent sector. To optimize school service delivery, IIBE should accelerate the integration of computer services, impose limits on class size, and adhere to performance contracts. To enhance research and development (R&D), IIBE should facilitate feedback mechanisms, clearly define the research focus, and designate individual responsibility for R&D efforts. Coordination with other donors should be promoted through specific targeting of multilateral assistance, developing formal contacts in a low-profile manner, and establishing contacts only with organizations sharing IIBE's objectives. IIBE must also take steps to enhance program management by creating vertical institutional structures to cope with increasing system complexity and cost. (Contains 54 references.) (TEJ)

A study investigated the extent that junior secondary school headmasters in Botswana believed their activities in three domains of headmaster responsibility--instructional supervision, school management, and community relations--contributed to improved student performance. A second focus was to compare the ways in which headmasters who differed in their beliefs also differed in the ways they viewed their schools' dynamics. Questionnaires were completed by 88 out of 125 junior secondary headmasters in Botswana, a 70 percent response rate. Cluster analysis found that headmasters differed significantly in their beliefs about the efficacy of their instructional supervision and school management activities in improving their students' achievement levels. Sixty-three percent believed that their performance in instructional supervision and school management activities could improve student achievement. However, the responses reflected a lack of clarity about the headmaster's role in the specific dynamics of the instructional process. Recommendations are made to target training for improving student outputs and to consider criteria other than teacher effectiveness for headmaster selection. As Botswana moves toward decentralization, education may be better served by optimistic headmasters who believe they can make a difference in improving student performance even if they lack clear ideas concerning exactly how to reach that goal. Four tables are included. (Contains 24 references.) (LMI)

This report focuses on how assistance can best support Namibia's efforts to plan and institute new policies and practices to further its educational system. Namibia is working to restructure its educational system rapidly following its gaining independence in 1990. National Education Goals established in the country's constitution include the right to free education for all, compulsory-education requirements, and the right to maintain private schools and colleges. Three broad goals have been identified for Namibia's educational system: unify existing separate ethnic education authorities into one system, make education as uniform as possible, and make education as universal as possible. The plans for fulfilling these education goals are reviewed in nine chapters: (1) Goals and Plans; (2) History, Structure and Basic Data; (3) Equity and Efficiency Dimensions in Namibian Education; (4) Addressing Equity and Efficiency Issues; (5) Issues in Curriculum and Instructional Effectiveness; (6) Capacities for Planning and Management of Education; (7) The Resource Base for Education; (8) Non-Governmental Support for Education; and (9) "Summary Findings. The report comments on problems with the existing educational system and how to address them, priorities for resource allocation, strengthening system capacities, and policy issues. The appendixes include a numerical comparison between the existing and proposed organizations, a description of non-governmental organizations' activities in education, and a map of Namibia. (Contains 51 references.) (JPT)