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A new approach to extract pectin from clementine peel using citric acid/sodium citrate solutions (CSS) at different pHs as green extracting agents was proposed. In this study, the effects of extrac...

Encapsulation is a common approach to improve the bacterial survival of probiotics. In this study, two new low-methoxyl pectins (CMP-6 and CMP-8) were used as coating materials to produce microcapsules (MCs) for the encapsulation of Lactobacillus acidophilus LMG9433T, Lactobacillus casei LMG6904T, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus LMG25859. A fermentation test showed that encapsulation did not influence the fermentation ability of lactobacilli. The biofilm formation of encapsulated lactobacilli was stimulated when an in situ cultivation was conducted on MCs, which was verified by cryo-SEM observation. The resultant biofilm-forming MCs (BMCs) contained high-density bacterial cells (∼1010 CFU/mL). Compared to planktonic lactobacilli, pectin-based MCs showed significant protection for encapsulated lactobacilli from heat shock and simulated gastric digestion. Especially, benefiting from the biofilm formation, BMCs provided higher protection with enhanced resistance to heat shock, freeze-drying, and gastrointestinal digestion than MCs. Our result highlighted the superior bacterial resistances of biofilm-forming probiotics encapsulated in pectinate microcapsules.

Free chlorine is used in industrial fresh-cut produce washing to avoid cross-contamination from pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, although chlorine dosing typically depends on feedback control. Control of free chlorine levels in fresh-cut produce wash water could be improved if chlorine demand (CLD) could be determined real-time, during processing. Previous research has shown that the CLD of non-chlorinated fresh produce wash water (CLDmax) correlates with UV absorbance (UVA) at 254 nm (UVA254). The goal of this study was to estimate CLD for produce wash conditions that are in-progress, i.e., when the chlorine concentration in water partially meets the CLD, as is the case during industrial, continuous produce washing. This was done for cabbage, carrot, green leaf lettuce and onion. UVA changed with both CLDmax and remaining CLD. Two wavelengths were necessary to predict the CLD:UVAmin, which changed minimally due to chlorination and had maximum correlation with CLDmax and UVAmax. The CLDmax and UVAmax changed maximally with chlorination and had maximum correlation with the fraction of the remaining CLD. Results showed that UVAmin and UVAmax were between 240–290 nm, and the exact wavelength depended on the vegetable. However, free chlorine itself influences UVA, and at a residual above 25 mg/L the chlorine interfered with the estimation of CLD. A case study on green leaf lettuce showed that CLD can be predicted by a model of the form f(UVAmin) x g(UVAmax /UVAmin). Using external validation data, optimal predictability of the model was obtained when both f and g were expressed as quadratic equations (SD/RMSE = 3.55; R² = 0.93). The described UVA method for predicting CLD shows promise for online application. Further studies should incorporate the possible variability in crop composition as well as other possible interferences with the UVA signal.

Pesticides are broadly utilized in crop cultivation and could end up in wastewater of vegetable- and potato companies during water-consuming processing steps. To gain insight into the presence of pesticide residues in (waste)water of these industries, water was analysed and monitored from three vegetable- and two potato processing companies in Belgium. During one year samples were collected of water before and after primary/secondary treatment (i.e. influent and effluent) and after tertiary treatment. Next to water, also (processed) carrot and potato products were analysed. Results show that boscalid (maximum: 18.32 μg/L) and terbuthylazine (maximum: 87.99 μg/L) are predominantly present in the vegetable industry and chlorpropham (maximum: 8.80×106 μg/L) and terbuthylazine (maximum: 3.37×105 μg/L) in the potato industry. The conventional treatment techniques seem to be insufficient for the removal of pesticides. Concentrations were even higher in the effluent than in the influent. Also, tertiary treatment techniques as ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis fail to reduce all pesticides below the European potable water limit of 0.1 μg/L. To meet this standard, the development and validation of new removal techniques are essential. Regarding product samples, almost no pesticide residues exceeded the MRL. Chlorpropham concentrations were statistically confirmed to be higher in potatoes and wastewater sampled when stored potatoes are processed.

Irrigation water has been highlighted as a potential contamination source of fresh produce with foodborne pathogens. Water disinfection treatments can be used to improve its microbiological safety. Growers should ascertain the minimum effective disinfectant doses able to achieve the desired microbiological goals. Furthermore, potential unwanted effects both on crop health and on chemical risks associated with the accumulation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) on the crop must be taken into account. The minimum effective doses vary depending on intrinsic factors (e.g. physicochemical characteristics of the irrigation water, concentration of the target microorganism) and also extrinsic factors (e.g. geographical and weather conditions). In the present study, different types of surface irrigation water were treated with various doses of a stable solution of chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ) (0.1–2.5 mg/L) at 21 ± 2 °C for a contact time of 1 min. Escherichia coli concentration (before and after treatment) and the residual ClO 2 (after treatment) were analyzed. Several water physicochemical parameters were measured (chemical oxygen demand (COD), turbidity, pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), conductivity and absorbance of filtered water samples at 254 nm (UV254)). Data obtained was used to develop a model for ClO 2 decay and a model for E. coli inactivation by linear regression. The ClO 2 decay model (adjusted R 2 = 0.93) included the initial ClO 2 concentration and the UV254 as explanatory variables. The E. coli inactivation model (adjusted R 2 = 0.77) included the initial ClO 2 concentration, the initial E. coli concentration, and the UV254 as explanatory variables. The development of these models would help growers in making decisions regarding the minimum effective doses they might use to treat their irrigation water when using a stable solution of ClO 2 to reduce microbial risk of fresh produce.

The combination of cinnamon essential oil (cinnamomum zeylanicum) and packaging methods was assessed in order to increase the shelf life of lean pork and salmon. The foodstuffs were dipped in 1 w/w% cinnamon, and the treated foodstuffs were stored (4 °C) in vacuum or MAP package (pork in 70% O2/30% CO2 and salmon in 60% CO2/40% N2). For both packaging methods the use of cinnamon increased the microbial shelf life of pork but not of salmon. For salmon, vacuum packaged salmon reached end of microbial shelf life faster than MAP packaged salmon. Off-odors occurred faster in MAP packaged pork than in vacuum and off-odors in salmon developed independent of packaging method. Cinnamon essential oil application was neutral towards the color and odor of the food matrices. Cinnamon essential oil shows promise as antimicrobial treatment on vacuum or MAP packaged lean pork, but not on salmon.

This study investigated the continuous dosing of chlorine to the wash water by means of a pump to maintain antimicrobial levels of free chlorine in the wash water during the washing of 12 batches of Pangasius fillets. In comparison to the control (no chlorination), total psychrotrophic bacteria were reduced by between 2 and 4 log CFU/100 ml. After the final batch was washed, total chlorine and organic matter in the water sampled had accumulated to 482.9 ± 17.0 ppm and 4447.5 ± 187.4 mg O 2 /L, respectively. However, only 8.9 ± 1.3 μg/L of trihalomethanes was formed in the chlorinated wash water whereas no trihalomethanes were detected in the washed Pangasius fillets after rinsing. It was concluded that the Pangasius fillets washed in chlorinated water continuously dosed with chlorine were safe for human consumption even after a throughput of 12 batches. However, the organoleptic properties of Pangasius fillets washed in the final batch differed significantly from those washed earlier batches.

The antifungal activity of emulsion-based edible coatings incorporating cinnamaldehyde against Glomerella cingulata was investigated by determining the effect of virgin coconut oil and oleic acid on the growth rate and its effect on the antifungal effectiveness of cinnamaldehyde using the modified Gompertz model and the minimum inhibitory concentration. The presence of virgin coconut oil, oleic acid and their mixture in emulsions without cinnamaldehyde up to 40% in the growth media showed the ability to slow down the growth rate of the fungi and also to extend the lag phase. However, it could not inhibit the growth of fungi. The slowest growth of fungi was observed from the emulsion containing beeswax, virgin coconut oil, and oleic acid, followed by those containing beeswax-virgin coconut oil. On the other hand, Tween® 80 contributed to promoting the growth rate. The minimum inhibitory concentration of cinnamaldehyde in the emulsions to inhibit the fungal growth was 0.76 mM. The presence of virgin coconut oil in the emulsions did not influence the effectiveness of the antifungal activity of cinnamaldehyde, whereas oleic acid slightly decreased it. The results led to the conclusion that virgin coconut oil is a promising as an alternative ingredient for emulsion-based edible coatings.

Traditional alcoholic extraction from by-products always discards insoluble fiber-rich residues, generating a new ‘waste’ stream. To recover these alcohol-insoluble residues (AIRs), we used an ethanol-washing method to obtain these dietary fiber concentrates from six agro-industrial by-products (blackcurrant pomace, banana peels, clementine peel, oat hull, potato peel and wheat bran) and applied them as probiotic carriers. The functionalities of absorption capacities and the antioxidant capacities in AIRs were characterized. The results showed that the alcohol-washing method to obtain AIRs did not result in a loss in the dietary fiber fraction. Fruit AIRs still contained a high content of bound phenolic compounds, displaying long-term ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging capacities during a 4-h incubation. Different AIRs varied in water and oil holding capacity and protein absorption capacity. The protective effects of AIRs on three lactobacillus strains (Lactobacillus acidophilus LMG9433T, Lactobacillus casei LMG6904T and Lactobacillus rhamnosus LMG25859) against heat shock were also investigated in Man-Rogosa-Sharpe (MRS) broth supplemented with 1% AIRs After an 18-h incubation at 37 °C, all AIRs did not influence the growth of probiotics, while they mostly increased the tolerance to the gastric digestion of Lactobacillus rhamnosus LMG25859, efficiently improved the viability of three strains after heat shock. Among six AIRs, the one extracted from clementine peel performed better in improving the viability of probiotic cells after heat shock than the other AIRs. Valorizing dietary fiber concentrate as probiotic carriers can promisingly replenish the whole chain of the food recovery from agro-industrial by-products.

Enzymatic browning of Iceberg lettuce was studied by subjecting midrib tissues to a series of mild heat treatments. The effects of wounding and subsequent application of a mild heat treatment were examined by monitoring the browning potential (BP) and the activity of three browning-related enzymes (i.e., phenylalanine ammonia lyase [PAL], polyphenol oxidase [PPO], and peroxidase [POD]) during refrigerated storage up to 10 days. Efficient inhibition of browning was achieved by treatment at 50 degrees C for 60 s. The wound-induced increase of the BP and the activity of PAL and POD was effectively suppressed, maintaining their values at initial levels up to 7 days of storage. PPO activity, on the contrary, remained unchanged after wounding, whether or not followed by heat treatment. BP, PAL activity and POD were found to be strongly correlated, whereas meaningful associations for PPO with the other parameters could not be established. Practical applications In an attempt to answer to the growing demand in the fresh-cut produce industry to control browning, heat treatment was investigated as interesting alternative to chemical preservation methods. Efficient control of enzymatic browning in fresh-cut Iceberg lettuce could be achieved by heat treatment at 50 degrees C for 60 s. Experimental data are provided showing the effects of wounding and subsequent heat treatment on visual browning, the BP and the activity of PAL, PPO, and POD during refrigerated storage up to 10 days. Using this data, correlations were found for BP, PAL activity, and POD activity, but not for PPO. Although undesired side effects of heat treatment (e.g., tissue softening) cannot be excluded, the obtained information might be useful for further research, serving as a baseline for wound-induced effects on browning-related parameters in fresh-cut lettuce and possible mechanisms of action of inhibitory treatments.

Background Water quality in the drinking water system (DWS) plays an important role in the general health and performance of broiler chickens. Conditions in the DWS of broilers are ideal for microbial biofilm formation. Since pathogens might reside within these biofilms, they serve as potential source of waterborne transmission of pathogens to livestock and humans. Knowledge about the presence, importance and composition of biofilms in the DWS of broilers is largely missing. In this study, we therefore aim to monitor the occurrence, and chemically and microbiologically characterise biofilms in the DWS of five broiler farms. Results The bacterial load after disinfection in DWSs was assessed by sampling with a flocked swab followed by enumerations of total aerobic flora (TAC) and Pseudomonas spp. The dominant flora was identified and their biofilm-forming capacity was evaluated. Also, proteins, carbohydrates and uronic acids were quantified to analyse the presence of extracellular polymeric substances of biofilms. Despite disinfection of the water and the DWS, average TAC was 6.03 ± 1.53 log CFU/20cm2. Enumerations for Pseudomonas spp. were on average 0.88 log CFU/20cm2 lower. The most identified dominant species from TAC were Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas geniculata and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However at species level, most of the identified microorganisms were farm specific. Almost all the isolates belonging to the three most abundant species were strong biofilm producers. Overall, 92% of all tested microorganisms were able to form biofilm under lab conditions. Furthermore, 63% of the DWS surfaces appeared to be contaminated with microorganisms combined with at least one of the analysed chemical components, which is indicative for the presence of biofilm. Conclusions Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas geniculata and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are considered as opportunistic pathogens and could consequently be a potential risk for animal health. Additionally, the biofilm-forming capacity of these organisms could promote attachment of other pathogens such as Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1451-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Berries represent an important fresh food commodity but are also used as dried or frozen ingredients added to many foods. Due to a number of foodborne outbreaks linked to frozen berries, the microbial safety of berry products has become a major food safety issue. The effect of gaseous ozone against selected strains was investigated in the present study at a laboratory scale. Among all the tested conditions, a 30 min treatment with 6 % wt/wt (ca. 80 g/m3) gaseous ozone delivered the highest reductions on fresh strawberries: 2.1, 1.5, 1.8 and 3.3-log reductions were achieved for Salmonella, E. faecium, MNV-1 and MS2, respectively. For frozen strawberries, a short exposure of 5 min to ozone gas resulted in 1.6, 0.7, 0.7 and 1.8-log reductions of Salmonella, E. faecium, MNV-1 and MS2, respectively. Salmonella appeared to be more sensitive than its surrogate E. faecium. Compared to MS2, MNV-1 was more resistant and thus may represent as a more suitable surrogate for human norovirus in validating gas treatment efficiency. No sensorial differences were detected after ozone treatment. Inactivation results using gaseous ozone on frozen berries was reported for the first time in the present study. Guidelines on reporting gaseous ozone data were proposed to help ensure the reproducibility and experimental transparency in inactivation studies. Data collected in the present study support the potential use of gaseous ozone as a sustainable decontamination technology for frozen strawberries at different stages of processing. Further optimization of ozone exposure in a pilot plant scale setting is needed to facilitate the future application of gaseous ozone during minimal processing of berries.

The use of chitosan for coagulation of artificial fresh-cut lettuce wash-water, made from butterhead lettuce and tap water, was assessed for reducing particulate and dissolved matter in order to improve the physicochemical quality, as such lowering the disinfectant demand and allowing longer reuse of postharvest wash-water. Chitosan was used to coagulate industrial leafy-vegetable wash-water from a processing company. Lowering the pH improved the reduction efficiency. Although the turbidity reduction was very high (>90%), virtually no dissolved organic matter was removed. Rapid sand filtration subsequent to coagulation resulted in more than 2 log reduction of aerobic psychrotrophic counts and total coliforms. Coagulation lowered the disinfectant demand (of free chlorine and peracetic acid) to some degree but had no positive impact on the trihalomethanes formation. As such, coagulation does not seem to be a viable option to lower the disinfection by-products, the disinfectant dose or the water use by itself. However, due to the efficient particle reduction by chitosan coagulation it shows potential to be used as a pretreatment for a subsequent biological treatment in a more developed water treatment system to allow water reuse in the fresh produce companies.

This study evaluated the decontamination of Pangasius fillets in chlorine or peracetic acid treated wash water. First, the decontamination efficacy of the washing step with chlorinated water applied by a Vietnamese processing company during trimming of Pangasius fillets was evaluated and used as the basis for the experiments performed on a laboratory scale. As chlorine was only added at the beginning of the batch and used continuously without renewal for 239 min; a rapid increase of the bacterial counts and a fast decrease of chlorine in the wash water were found. This could be explained by the rapid accumulation of organic matter (ca. 400 mg O 2 /L of COD after only 24 min). Secondly, for the experiments performed on a laboratory scale, a single batch approach (one batch of wash water for treating a fillet) was used. Chlorine and PAA were evaluated at 10, 20, 50 and 150 ppm at contact times of 10, 20 and 240 s. Washing with chlorine and PAA wash water resulted in a reduction of Escherichia coli on Pangasius fish which ranged from 0–1.0 and 0.4–1.4 log CFU/g, respectively while less to no reduction of total psychrotrophic counts, lactic acid bacteria and coliforms on Pangasius fish was observed. However, in comparison to PAA, chlorine was lost rapidly. As an example, 53–83% of chlorine and 15–17% of PAA were lost after washing for 40 s (COD = 238.2 ± 66.3 mg O 2 /L). Peracetic acid can therefore be an alternative sanitizer. However, its higher cost will have to be taken into consideration. Where (cheaper) chlorine is used, the processors have to pay close attention to the residual chlorine level, pH and COD level during treatment for optimal efficacy.

A methodology to i) assess the feasibility of water disinfection in fresh-cut leafy greens wash water and ii) to compare the disinfectant efficiency of water disinfectants was defined and applied for a combination of peracetic acid (PAA) and lactic acid (LA) and comparison with free chlorine was made. Standardized process water, a watery suspension of iceberg lettuce, was used for the experiments. First, the combination of PAA+LA was evaluated for water recycling. In this case disinfectant was added to standardized process water inoculated with Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157 (6logCFU/mL). Regression models were constructed based on the batch inactivation data and validated in industrial process water obtained from fresh-cut leafy green processing plants. The UV254(F) was the best indicator for PAA decay and as such for the E. coli O157 inactivation with PAA+LA. The disinfection efficiency of PAA+LA increased with decreasing pH. Furthermore, PAA+LA efficacy was assessed as a process water disinfectant to be used within the washing tank, using a dynamic washing process with continuous influx of E. coli O157 and organic matter in the washing tank. The process water contamination in the dynamic process was adequately estimated by the developed model that assumed that knowledge of the disinfectant residual was sufficient to estimate the microbial contamination, regardless the physicochemical load. Based on the obtained results, PAA+LA seems to be better suited than chlorine for disinfecting process wash water with a high organic load but a higher disinfectant residual is necessary due to the slower E. coli O157 inactivation kinetics when compared to chlorine.

The potential cross-contamination of pathogens between clean and contaminated produce in the washing tank is highly dependent on the water quality. Process wash water disinfectants are applied to maintain the water quality during processing. The review examines the efficacy of process wash water disinfectants during produce processing with the aim to prevent cross-contamination of pathogens. Process wash water disinfection requires short contact times so microorganisms are rapidly inactivated. Free chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and peracetic acid were considered suitable disinfectants. A disinfectant’s reactivity with the organic matter will determine the disinfectant residual, which is of paramount importance for microbial inactivation and should be monitored in situ. Furthermore, the chemical and worker safety, and the legislative framework will determine the suitability of a disinfection technique. Current research often focuses on produce decontamination and to a lesser extent on preventing cross-contamination. Further research on a sanitizer’s efficacy in the washing water is recommended at the laboratory scale, in particular with experimental designs reflecting industrial conditions. Validation on the industrial scale is warranted to better understand the overall effects of a sanitizer.

Accessibility to abundant sources of high-quality water is integral to the production of safe and wholesome fresh produce. However, access to safe water is becoming increasingly difficult in many parts of the world, and this can lead to the production of fresh produce contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, resulting in increased risk of human disease. Water, an important raw material in the fresh produce chain, is used in considerable amounts in many operations, including irrigation and application of pesticides and fertilizers, but also as a transport medium and for cooling and washing in postharvest practices. In several reported outbreaks related to uncooked fruit and vegetable products, water has been identified as a likely source of the outbreak. The present study, initiated by the ILSI Europe Emerging Microbiological Issues Task Force in collaboration with 8 other ILSI branches and support of WHO/FAO, was undertaken to review the status of, and provide suggestions for, consideration by different stakeholders on water and sanitation and its impact on food safety and public health. A limited number of guidelines and regulations on water quality for agricultural production are available, and many of them are still heavily based on microbial standards and (debated) parameters such as fecal coliforms. Data gaps have been identified with regard to baseline studies of microbial pathogens in water sources in many regions, the need for agreement on methods and microbial parameters to be used in assessing water quality, the fate of pathogens in water, and their transfer and persistence on irrigated/processed produce.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was used to maintain the microbial wash water quality of a full-scale leafy vegetables (radicchio, sugar loaf, curled endive, lollo, lollo rosso) wash water process. Despite addition of 300 L/h of 1.8% H2O2 to a 450 L washing bath (333 ± 50 kg/h fresh-cut produce introduction speed), the H2O2 quickly decreased and a lower wash water contamination of aerobic psychrotrophic plate count (APC) and enterococci than without addition of H2O2 could not be maintained. There was no significant difference between the APC on fresh-cut leafy vegetables washed with H2O2 and those washed with water. In a second part, lab-scale experiments were performed to assess the impact of a commercial metal ion formulation (Bacsan®, containing a. o. Cu2+, Zn2+, Ag+) on the stability of H2O2 in artificial wash water, made from iceberg lettuce and tap water. Bacsan improved the stability of H2O2 in artificial lettuce wash water and fresh-cut leafy vegetables wash water from a processing company and synergistically increased the disinfection efficiency of APC and Escherichia coli (E. coli) compared to H2O2 or Bacsan. Increasing chemical oxygen demand (COD) had detrimental effect on the H2O2 stability and disinfection efficiency. Addition of Ag+ to Bacsan further synergistically enhanced the H2O2 stability. H2O2 is not suited as an in situ wash water disinfectant to avoid cross-contamination in fresh-cut leafy vegetables washing processes due to the slow water disinfection kinetics and the rapid H2O2 consumption. However, H2O2/Bacsan shows potential for use in off-line processes.

Biofilms are an important source of contamination in food companies, yet the composition of biofilms in practice is still mostly unknown. The chemical and microbiological characterization of surface samples taken after cleaning and disinfection is very important to distinguish free-living bacteria from the attached bacteria in biofilms. In this study, sampling methods that are potentially useful for both chemical and microbiological analyses of surface samples were evaluated. In the manufacturing facilities of eight Belgian food companies, surfaces were sampled after cleaning and disinfection using two sampling methods: the scraper-flocked swab method and the sponge stick method. Microbiological and chemical analyses were performed on these samples to evaluate the suitability of the sampling methods for the quantification of extracellular polymeric substance components and microorganisms originating from biofilms in these facilities. The scraper-flocked swab method was most suitable for chemical analyses of the samples because the material in these swabs did not interfere with determination of the chemical components. For microbiological enumerations, the sponge stick method was slightly but not significantly more effective than the scraper-flocked swab method. In all but one of the facilities, at least 20% of the sampled surfaces had more than 102 CFU/100 cm2. Proteins were found in 20% of the chemically analyzed surface samples, and carbohydrates and uronic acids were found in 15 and 8% of the samples, respectively. When chemical and microbiological results were combined, 17% of the sampled surfaces were contaminated with both microorganisms and at least one of the analyzed chemical components; thus, these surfaces were characterized as carrying biofilm. Overall, microbiological contamination in the food industry is highly variable by food sector and even within a facility at various sampling points and sampling times.

With growing interest in essential oils as natural preservatives in the food industry, the literature is expanding enormously. To understand the antimicrobial activity of essential oils, the antimicrobial mechanism of individual essential oil (EO) compounds, and their minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), are interesting starting points for research. Therefore, and to get insight into the factors influencing their antimicrobial activities, the Web of Science was searched for MICs of EO compounds (1995-2016). Many MICs for individual EO compounds have already been reported in the literature, but there is large variability in these data, even for the MIC of the same compound against the same species. No correlation was found between the tested structural parameters of EO compounds (polarity, water solubility, dissociation constant, molecular weight and molecular complexity) and their MICs against all microorganisms, Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria and fungi. Few clear differences in sensitivity between microorganisms could be found. Based on this review it is clear that different incubation conditions, culture media and the use of emulsifiers/solvents have an influence on the MIC, causing big variance. This review points out the need for a good international standard method to assess the antimicrobial activity of EO compounds for better comparability between studies.

Maintaining free chlorine (FC) residual at appropriate pH values is a control approach used to prevent pathogen cross-contamination during tomato dump tank handling and fresh-cut produce washing operations. Oxidation reduction potential (ORP) is a rapid measurement of oxidant-based sanitizer strength, and has been used to estimate FC residual. However, factors, in addition to FC and pH, which influence ORP are not fully understood. This study examined the relationship between ORP and FC under chlorine demand (CLD) free conditions and during fresh produce washing. An equation predictive of FC was developed in the form logFC = f(ORP, ORP2, ORP.pH). A good correlation between ORP and logFC was maintained when other variables changed, but the resulting ORP-logFC curve changed (slope, intercept). A decrease in pH or temperature led to an increase in ORP. Using tap water to wash the produce instead of distilled water significantly changed the ORP. For different types of tested produce, i.e., fresh-cut carrot, onion, romaine and iceberg lettuce, and for whole tomatoes, increasing the product-to-water ratio (i.e., increasing the organics transferred into the water) led to a decrease in ORP for a specific FC residual. The choice of acidulant during washing also influenced ORP. Overall, the correlation of ORP with logFC is more reliable at the lower end (5 mg/L FC) than at the higher end (100 mg/L FC) of the FC range used in fresh produce washing. However, since the ORP in fresh produce wash water is affected significantly in multiple ways by the wash water and process conditions, the predicted FC values with ORP under certain fresh-cut produce washing conditions cannot be generalized for other conditions.

The water management in fresh-cut produce processing is an important factor affecting the microbial quality and safety of fresh-cut produce. For this study, a commercial lettuce washing process was simulated using two subsequent washing baths (WB). The worst case scenario, when no sanitizers are used and still common in some European countries, was investigated to fully understand the potential for cross-contamination and to obtain baseline data for further risk assessment. The two cross-contamination processes (from lettuce to water and from water to lettuce) were included in the simulation study and the transfer of Escherichia coli, E. coli O157, MS2 phage and murine norovirus was quantified. The mean reduction of initially contaminated lettuce through the washing in two successive WB was limited: 0.3 ± 0.1 log CFU E. coli/g after washing in WB1 and an additional reduction of 0.2 ± 0.1 log after WB2. The microbial load of the water in the washing baths, initially starting off with potable water, increased rapidly during the washing process of the contaminated lettuce. Furthermore to quantify the transfer of the four implicated micro-organisms from contaminated water to the lettuce, the first washing bath was inoculated with either approximately 3.0, 4.0 and 5.0 log CFU E. coli/100 ml or 4.8, 5.6 or 6.7 log CFU E. coli O157/100 ml, 4.0, 5.1 or 6.5 log PFU MS2 phages/100 ml or 6.5 log PFU/100 ml norovirus surrogate MNV-1. The contamination of the subsequently washed lettuce portions resulted in levels of ca. 1.0 up to 1.9 log CFU E. coli/g after passing the two washing steps. In addition, after a rapid initial increase, due to spill over of water from WB 1 to WB2, the contamination of WB2 further augmented during the washing process to approximately 1.0 to 0.5 log below the inoculation level of WB1. Transfer of E. coli O157, MS2 phages or MNV-1 from the water to the lettuce was respectively 0.9% ± 0.3%, 0.5% ± 0.2% and 0.5 ± 0.1% after WB1 and resulted in a contamination level for the highest inoculum level of WB1 of respectively ca. 2.9 ± 0.1 log CFU/g, 3.7 ± 0.1 log PFU/g and 4.4 ± 0.1 log PFU/g lettuce. The quantitative data of lettuce contamination and transfers established in this study further highlight the vulnerability of fresh produce to cross-contamination during the washing stage and stresses that notwithstanding the use of initial potable water and partial refreshment of water but without the use of sanitizers, microbial pathogens (or indicator organisms) may easily be introduced and reside for prolonged periods in washing baths enabling cross-contamination to the final fresh-cut product.

This paper comprises a selection tool for water disinfection methods for fresh produce pre- and postharvest practices. A variety of water disinfection technologies is available on the market and no single technology is the best choice for all applications. It can be difficult for end users to choose the technology that is best fit for a specific application. Therefore, the different technologies were characterized in order to identify criteria that influence the suitability of a technology for pre- or postharvest applications. Introduced criteria were divided into three principal components: (i) criteria related to the technology and which relate to the disinfection efficiency, (ii) attention points for the management and proper operation, and (iii) necessities in order to sustain the operation with respect to the environment. The selection criteria may help the end user of the water disinfection technology to obtain a systematic insight into all relevant aspects to be considered for preliminary decision making on which technologies should be put to feasibility testing for water disinfection in pre- and postharvest practices of the fresh produce chain.

The use of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as water disinfectant during fresh-cut iceberg lettuce washing was studied concerning three key issues: i) disinfectant demand, ii) disinfection efficiency, and iii) production of chlorite (ClO2−). Standardized process water (SPW), a watery suspension of iceberg lettuce, was used as model water system. In SPW (chemical oxygen demand (COD) 1130 mg O2/L, 4 °C, pH 7) the chlorine demand was more than 10 times higher than the ClO2 demand. Dosing 5 mg/L ClO2 (0.40 mg/L residual after 2 min contact time) inactivated the total psychrotrophic plate count (TPC), including molds, to undetectable levels (>3 log reduction) after 2 min, and reduced Escherichia coli (E. coli) to undetectable levels (>5 log reduction) within 3 min. A dose of 70 mg/L chlorine (free chlorine residual of 1.7 mg/L after 2 min) was unsuccessful to inactivate molds to undetectable levels. About 77% of the consumed ClO2 was reduced to ClO2− due to reaction with the SPW. Concerning disinfectant dose, ClO2 is more efficient than free chlorine for disinfecting fresh-cut lettuce wash water. However, data on the transfer of ClO2− and chlorate (ClO3−) to the lettuce is needed before ClO2 can be recommended as wash water disinfectant.

Fresh produce is known to carry nonpathogenic epiphytic microorganisms. During agricultural production and harvesting, leafy greens can become contaminated with antibiotic-resistant pathogens or commensals from animal and human sources. As lettuce does not undergo any inactivation or preservation treatment during processing, consumers may be exposed directly to all of the (resistant) bacteria present. In this study, we investigated whether lettuce or its production environment (irrigation water, soil) is able to act as a vector or reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli . Over a 1-year period, eight lettuce farms were visited multiple times and 738 samples, including lettuce seedlings (leaves and soil), soil, irrigation water, and lettuce leaves were collected. From these samples, 473 isolates of Escherichia coli were obtained and tested for resistance to 14 antimicrobials. Fifty-four isolates (11.4%) were resistant to one or more antimicrobials. The highest resistance rate was observed for ampicillin (7%), followed by cephalothin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, tetracycline, trimethoprim, and streptomycin, with resistance rates between 4.4 and 3.6%. No resistance to amikacin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, or kanamycin was observed. One isolate was resistant to cefotaxime. Among the multiresistant isolates ( n = 37), ampicillin and cephalothin showed the highest resistance rates, at 76 and 52%, respectively. E. coli isolates from lettuce showed higher resistance rates than E. coli isolates obtained from soil or irrigation water samples. When the presence of resistance in E. coli isolates from lettuce production sites and their resistance patterns were compared with the profiles of animal-derived E. coli strains, they were found to be the most comparable with what is found in the cattle reservoir. This may suggest that cattle are a potential reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli strains in plant primary production.

In January 2011, a workshop was organized by the EU FP7 Veg-i-Trade project to capture opinions of stakeholders on food safety issues in the global fresh produce supply chain. Food safety experts from various stakeholder types in the farm-to-fork chain were represented: farmer related organizations (n = 6), fresh produce processing and trading companies (n = 17), retail (n = 3), consumer organizations (n = 2), competent authorities (n = 7) and lastly research institutes and universities (n = 19). The experts who originated mainly from European countries (92.6%) were grouped in nine discussion groups per type of stakeholder and asked to rank food safety issues via a scoring approach according to perceived importance from their stakeholder type point of view. Also information sources for opinion making, appropriate food safety control measures and perceived contextual factors increasingly challenging governance of food safety in fresh produce were ranked according to perceived importance. Although some differences were noted between opinions of the different stakeholders, there was in general an agreement on the main priorities in food safety of fresh produce. Bacterial pathogens were overall considered to be the most important food safety issue for fresh produce, followed by foodborne viruses, pesticide residues and mycotoxins. Alert systems such as the European Commission's Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) were considered as the most important source of information of food safety issues, followed by reports of international organizations (e.g. WHO, EFSA), legislative documents (e.g. EU legislation), national reports (e.g. on monitoring hazards, foodborne outbreaks) and exchange of information between people (informal contacts). Concerning the control measures, the application of good agricultural practices (GAP) was identified to be the most important control measure to assure the safety of fresh produce, followed by the application of good hygienic practices (GHP) and the certification of food safety management systems (FSMS). Increasing international trade and globalization were overall expected to have a large impact on food safety in fresh produce. Other contextual factors perceived to be important were the food safety policies by governments and the (lack of) food safety knowledge by consumers and other stakeholders of the fresh produce supply chain. Although the various stakeholder groups may conceive issues differently from their proper position in the fresh produce supply chain, no deep disagreements emerged. This type of workshop enhances interaction and risk communication between stakeholders and contributes to a better understanding of each other's concerns, constraints and interests to deal with the food safety of the increasingly complex and globalized fresh produce supply chain.

A survey was set-up using a web-application supplemented with a print-out questionnaire to gather knowledge on consumption patterns and consumer behaviour in the storage and preparation of poultry meat, in particular poultry meat preparations for Belgian adults. In total 1618 respondents were reached. The survey included questions on risk factors associated with campylobacteriosis i.e. storage conditions, potential for cross-contamination and undercooking. Almost 61% of the respondents have identified home freezing of fresh poultry meat as a common storage technique. Several cross-contamination routes in the kitchen are confirmed, e.g. putting cooked poultry meat at the same plate of the raw poultry meat (11.2%), not washing hands after handling raw poultry meat (11%), using the same knife (6.7%) or cutting board (8.2%) for the vegetables which was prior used for the poultry meat. Although the majority of the respondents indicated to eat their poultry meat well-cooked (96% for poultry meat preparations to 98.4% for broiler), 16% would eat not well-cooked poultry meat if served at a barbecue. Poultry parts not marinated or seasoned was ranked as eaten the most, followed by broiler and next meat preparations (with first the marinated/seasoned poultry cuts and second the minced poultry meat preparations). The gathered consumer data may now be incorporated into a retail to fork quantitative risk assessment model for poultry meat preparations to estimate the risk for campylobacteriosis to the Belgian consumer and to enable the evaluation of risk mitigation strategies (to support risk managers) in the consumer phase. A proper comparison of the contribution of the different pathways to consumers’ exposure (i.e. effect of freezing during storage, prevalence of undercooking and cross-contamination) to Campylobacter bacteria may now be performed.

This study provided insight into the degree of microbial contamination in the processing chain of prepacked (bagged) lettuce in two Belgian fresh-cut produce processing companies. The pathogens Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected. Total psychrotrophic aerobic bacterial counts (TPACs) in water samples, fresh produce, and environmental samples suggested that the TPAC is not a good indicator of overall quality and best manufacturing practices during production and processing. Because of the high TPACs in the harvested lettuce crops, the process water becomes quickly contaminated, and subsequent TPACs do not change much throughout the production process of a batch. The hygiene indicator Escherichia coli was used to assess the water management practices in these two companies in relation to food safety. Practices such as insufficient cleaning and disinfection of washing baths, irregular refilling of the produce wash baths with water of good microbial quality, and the use of high product/water ratios resulted in a rapid increase in E. coli in the processing water, with potential transfer to the end product (fresh-cut lettuce). The washing step in the production of fresh-cut lettuce was identified as a potential pathway for dispersion of microorganisms and introduction of E. coli to the end product via cross-contamination. An intervention step to reduce microbial contamination is needed, particularly when no sanitizers are used as is the case in some European Union countries. Thus, from a food safety point of view proper water management (and its validation) is a critical point in the fresh-cut produce processing industry.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of functionalised electrospun nanofibre microfiltration membranes, spun by an innovative electrospinning technique, for water disinfection. As such, this study bridges between development in electrospinning techniques for the production of flat sheet membranes and the application of these membranes in water filtration and disinfection. Different functionalising agents (nanosilver, bronopol, WSCP, …) were initially evaluated in short term experiments. The most performing agent (WSCP) resulted in a 5.2 log 10 colony forming units removal per 100 ml (CFU/100 ml) hospital wastewater when a 5 omf% WSCP functionalised membrane was applied. Long term lab scale tests showed a 5.6 log 10 CFU/100 ml removal for Staphylococcus aureus and a 4.0 log 10 CFU/100 ml removal for Escherichia coli , indicating a better removal of Grampositive bacteria. Leaching experiments showed a 10% wash-out of the applied functionalising agent. This leaching did not obstruct the pathogen removal capacity of the functionalised nanofibres. Further research should be conducted towards the reproducibility and controllability of electrospinning of functional nanofibres.

A diagnostic instrument comprising a combined assessment of core control and assurance activities and a microbial assessment instrument were used to measure the performance of current food safety management systems (FSMSs) of two poultry meat preparation companies. The high risk status of the company's contextual factors, i.e., starting from raw materials (poultry carcasses) with possible high numbers and prevalence of pathogens such as Campylobacter spp., requires advanced core control and assurance activities in the FSMS to guarantee food safety. The level of the core FSMS activities differed between the companies, and this difference was reflected in overall microbial quality (mesophilic aerobic count), presence of hygiene indicators (Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli), and contamination with pathogens such as Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter spp. The food safety output expressed as a microbial safety profile was related to the variability in the prevalence and contamination levels of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat preparations found in a Belgian nationwide study. Although a poultry meat processing company could have an advanced FSMS in place and a good microbial profile (i.e., lower prevalence of pathogens, lower microbial numbers, and less variability in microbial contamination), these positive factors might not guarantee pathogen-free products. Contamination could be attributed to the inability to apply effective interventions to reduce or eliminate pathogens in the production chain of (raw) poultry meat preparations.

A comparative study examining Bolton broth and Preston broth for enrichment and reliable detection of Campylobacter jejuni (both healthy and freeze stressed cells) was performed. Tested as pure cultures, Bolton broth enabled faster resuscitation and growth of C. jejuni compared to Preston broth. When C. jejuni was co-incubated with extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli isolated from Belgian poultry meat preparations, the latter dominated in the Bolton enrichment broth and crowded the mCCDA plates. This resulted in the inability to recover C. jejuni by ISO 10272-1:2006 standard method. Preston broth did not support the growth of the ESBL E. coli isolates, but showed longer detection time of C. jejuni compared to Bolton broth. The use of the same antibiotic (sodium cefoperazone) in Bolton broth and in mCCDA plates may explain the problems encountered for detection of C. jejuni , as high numbers of ESBL E. coli present after enrichment in Bolton broth, also caused overgrowth and masked the few C. jejuni colonies present on the mCCDA plates. The use of Campylobacter spp. specific real-time PCR circumvented these problems and enabled rapid detection of the pathogen after 24 h enrichment in both Bolton and Preston broth, for both healthy and freeze stressed cells.

The microbiological sanitary quality and safety of leafy greens and strawberries were assessed in the primary production in Belgium, Brazil, Egypt, Norway and Spain by enumeration of Escherichia coli and detection of Salmonella, Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and Campylobacter. Water samples were more prone to containing pathogens (54 positives out of 950 analyses) than soil (16/1186) and produce on the field (18/977 for leafy greens and 5/402 for strawberries). The prevalence of pathogens also varied markedly according to the sampling region. Flooding of fields increased the risk considerably, with odds ratio (OR) 10.9 for Salmonella and 7.0 for STEC. A significant association between elevated numbers of generic E. coli and detection of pathogens (OR of 2.3 for STEC and 2.7 for Salmonella) was established. Generic E. coli was found to be a suitable index organism for Salmonella and STEC, but to a lesser extent for Campylobacter. Guidelines on frequency of sampling and threshold values for E. coli in irrigation water may differ from region to region. © 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland., This research was supported by the European Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7) project Veg-i-Trade under grant agreement No. 244994. We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI)., We acknowledge support by the CSIC Open Access Publication Initiative through its Unit of Information Resources for Research (URICI).

The aim of this study was to gain insight into potential differences in risk factors for microbial contamination in greenhouse versus open field lettuce production. Information was collected on sources, testing, and monitoring and if applicable, treatment of irrigation and harvest rinsing water. These data were combined with results of analysis on the levels of Escherichia coli as a fecal indicator organism and the presence of enteric bacterial pathogens on both lettuce crops and environmental samples. Enterohemorragic Escherichia coli (EHEC) PCR signals (vt1 or vt2 positive and eae positive), Campylobacter spp., and Salmonella spp. isolates were more often obtained from irrigation water sampled from open field farms (21/45, 46.7%) versus from greenhouse production (9/75, 12.0%). The open field production was shown to be more prone to fecal contamination as the number of lettuce samples and irrigation water with elevated E. coli was significantly higher. Farmers comply with generic guidelines on good agricultural practices available at the national level, but monitoring of microbial quality, and if applicable appropriateness of water treatment, or water used for irrigation or at harvest is restricted. These results indicate the need for further elaboration of specific guidelines and control measures for leafy greens with regard to microbial hazards.

Volume 79, no. 9, p. 2850–2861, 2013. Page 2855, column 1, equation 9: “ N ( t ) =

An appropriate approach of high throughput multi-screening was verified for Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella spp. in strawberries, lettuce and basil. Sample replicates were inoculated with STEC O157 or O26 and Salmonella Thompson (ca. 10-70, 100-700 and 1000-7000 cfu/25 g) and analysed after 1 and 5 days of storage (strawberries and lettuce at 7 °C and basil at 10 °C). After 18-24 h of enrichment at 37 °C in buffered peptone water, detection was performed using the GeneDisc multiplex PCR (stx1, stx2, eae and iroB genes) and selective culture media for isolation of STEC (with immunomagnetic separation (IMS)) and Salmonella spp. in parallel. After 1 day, the pathogenic strains were recovered from all samples for all inoculum levels, whereas reduced detection rates of STEC O157 and S. Thompson were observed after 5 days of storage in case of strawberries, in particular for the lowest inoculums level, suggesting superior survival potential for STEC O26. Overall, this study indicates the ability of PCR based screening methods for reproducible multi-detection of low numbers (10-70 cfu/25 g) of STEC and Salmonella in this type of foods. However, for the basil samples, PCR needed twofold dilution of the DNA extract to overcome inhibition. It was noted that on several occasions growth of competitive microbiota obstructed finding presumptive colonies on the selective agar media, whereas the use of an additional agar medium such as CHROMagar STEC (without IMS) improved recovery rate of STEC.

Eight Belgian lettuce farms located in the West Flanders were sampled to establish the relationships between levels of indicator bacteria, detection of enteric zoonotic pathogens and the temperature and precipitation during primary production. Pathogenic bacteria (PCR EHEC positives, Salmonella spp. or Campylobacter spp.) and indicator bacteria (total psychrotrophic aerobic plate count (TPAC), total coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci) were determined over a period of one and a half year from seedling leaves, peat-soil of the seedling, lettuce crops, field soil and irrigation water. Neither Salmonella isolates nor PCR EHEC signals were detected from lettuce although one out of 92 field soil samples contained Salmonella spp. and five soil samples provided PCR positives for EHEC virulence factors (vt1 or vt2 and eae gene). A low prevalence of Campylobacter (8/88) was noted in lettuce. It was shown that irrigation water is a major risk factor with regard to the bacterial contamination of the fresh produce as the water samples showed on a regular basis E. coli presence (59.2% of samples ≥ 1 CFU/100 ml) and occasionally detection of pathogens (25%, n = 30/120), in particular Campylobacter spp. The highest correlations between indicator bacteria, pathogens, temperature and the amount of precipitation were observed for the water samples in contrast to the soil or lettuce samples where no correlations were observed. The high correlations between E. coli, total coliforms and enterococci in the water implicated redundancy between analyses. Presence of elevated levels of E. coli increased the probability for the presence of pathogens (Campylobacter spp., EHEC and Salmonella spp.), but had a low to moderate predictive value on the actual presence of pathogens. The presence of pathogens and indicator bacteria in the water samples showed a seasonal effect as they tend to be more present during the months with higher temperature.

A screening in a sugar snap packaging company showed a converged build-up of aerobic psychrotrophic plate count (APC) (ca. 6.5 log CFU/100mL), yeasts and molds (Y&M), and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (both ca. 4.5 log CFU/100mL) in the wash water in the absence of water sanitizer, and a low build-up of chemical oxygen demand (30 ± 5 mg O2/L) and turbidity (5.2 ± 1.1 NTU). Decontamination experiments were performed in the lab with Purac FCC 80® (80% L(+) lactic acid), two other commercial water sanitizers based on organic acids (NATRApHASe-ABAV®, and NATRApHASe-FVS®) and chlorine to evaluate their performance in reduction of the sugar snap microbial load as well as their functionality as disinfectant of the wash water to avoid cross-contamination. An additional 1 log reduction of APC on the sugar snaps was achieved with lactic acid in the range 0.8 to 1.6%, ABAV 0.5%, and free chlorine 200mg/L when compared to a water wash, while no significant difference in the numbers of Y&M was obtained when washing in sanitizer compared to water. There was no significant influence of the studied concentration and contact time on decontamination efficiency. Treatment with lactic acid 0.8% resulted in a lower APC contamination on the sugar snaps than on the untreated and water washed samples for 10 days. Chlorine 200mg/L was the only treatment able to maintain the Y&M load lower than the untreated samples throughout the entire storage duration. The use of water sanitizers could not extend the sensorial shelf-life. Microbial loads were not indicative/predictive of visual microbial spoilage (shelf-life limiting factor), whereas maturity and amount of damage at the calyx end of the pods were. The APC wash water contamination (5.2 log CFU/100mL) was reduced significantly by chlorine 20 to 200mg/L (to 1.4 log CFU/100mL), ABAV 0.5 to 1.5% (to 2.7 log CFU/100mL), FVS 0.5% (to 2.7 log CFU/100mL) and lactic acid 0.8 to 1.6% (to 3.4 log CFU/100mL). Only the use of chlorine enabled the reduction of the Y&M wash water contamination significantly (from 3.4 to 1.4 log CFU/100mL). The low physicochemical build-up of the sugar snap wash water during the industrial washing process makes free chlorine attractive as a water disinfectant to prevent bacterial and fungal cross-contamination, whereas the sanitizers based on organic acids are not, due to their weak water disinfection efficiency.

The aim was to provide information about E. coli contamination of washing water to prevent water becoming a vehicle for transfer of microbial contamination to lettuce and to get insight on the factors affecting proper water management. A lettuce wash process was simulated to determine (1) the ability to use “clean” water and the tolerable E. coli levels for “clean” water and its’ potential to respect it upon re-use of water in the first washing bath, (2) the need and effect of using potable water in the second washing bath, (3) the use of a final rinsing step after washing to reduce the microbial contamination level of lettuce, (4) the influence of initial E. coli contamination levels of lettuce on the washing bath water quality and (5) the use of chlorine to control the water quality in the first washing bath (prevent cross-contamination of lettuce). Due to transfer via drain water of washed lettuce, the contamination level of the “clean (re-used) water” in the first wash bath determined the contamination of the second wash bath (aimed to be potable water). For lower contaminations (

This study aimed to gain an insight in the performance of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)-based food safety management systems (FSMS) implemented in Japanese milk processing plants. Since 1995, Japan has a comprehensive approval system for food manufacturing establishments by evaluating the development and implementation of GHP and HACCP by the food manufacturing companies/operators. An FSMS-diagnostic instrument was applied to assess the level of the core control and assurance activities in the FSMS and to judge the risk level of the context wherein the companies operate. The data were collected in 13 dairy companies (mostly located around Tokyo area) and involved in-depth interviews performed (by the National Institute of Public Health) with responsible quality assurance persons of respective companies. The results revealed that the microbial food safety output was higher for companies with national HACCP approval. They have more advanced FSMS in combination with a less risky context. All Japanese companies scored high on technology-dependent activities (i.e. preventive measures and intervention processes), but less in managerial activities as monitoring and typical quality assurance activities as validation and verification of the FSMS. Japan has a detailed vertical legislation, leading to a “hazard-based” and ”legislation-based” FSMS compared to a “science- or risk-based” FSMS common in Europe.

A diagnostic instrument comprising a combined assessment of core control and assurance activities and a microbial assessment instrument were used to measure the performance of current food safety management systems (FSMSs) of two poultry meat preparation companies. The high risk status of the company's contextual factors, i.e., starting from raw materials (poultry carcasses) with possible high numbers and prevalence of pathogens such as Campylobacter spp., requires advanced core control and assurance activities in the FSMS to guarantee food safety. The level of the core FSMS activities differed between the companies, and this difference was reflected in overall microbial quality (mesophilic aerobic count), presence of hygiene indicators (Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli), and contamination with pathogens such as Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter spp. The food safety output expressed as a microbial safety profile was related to the variability in the prevalence and contamination levels of Campylobacter spp. in poultry meat preparations found in a Belgian nationwide study. Although a poultry meat processing company could have an advanced FSMS in place and a good microbial profile (i.e., lower prevalence of pathogens, lower microbial numbers, and less variability in microbial contamination), these positive factors might not guarantee pathogen-free products. Contamination could be attributed to the inability to apply effective interventions to reduce or eliminate pathogens in the production chain of (raw) poultry meat preparations.