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The appearance of twin/stacking faults in nanoparticles creates strains affecting the catalytic, optical, and electrical properties of nanomaterials.

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems are increasingly offered in new vehicles in the market today, and they form a core building block for future full autonomous driving. ACC systems allow vehicles to maintain a desired headway to a leading vehicle automatically. Recent research demonstrates that (1) shorter headways lead to higher throughput, and (2) the effective use of ACC can improve traffic flow by adapting the desired time headway in response to changing traffic conditions. In this paper we show that, although shorter headways result in higher capacity, flow breakdown still occurs if traffic densities at bottlenecks are allowed to exceed the critical density. Therefore, dynamic traffic control near bottlenecks is still necessary to avoid bottleneck activation and capacity loss. We propose an adaptive reinforcement learning (RL) headway controller that uses ACC headways to optimize traffic flow and minimize delay. Based on state measurements, the controller dynamically assigns an optimal headway value for each freeway section within a control cycle. In a freeway simulation example, we first demonstrate that different nondynamic headway assignment strategies failed to avoid congestion and traffic breakdown. We then present a dynamic headway control strategy based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL) that adapts the desired headway according to the changing traffic conditions on both the freeway and the ramp to effectively maximize traffic flow and minimize system delay. We quantitatively demonstrate that our DRL dynamic headway control strategy improved traffic and reduced system delay by up to 57% compared with the examined nondynamic headways.