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Colette Mankowski,1 Divine Ikenwilo,2,† Sebastian Heidenreich,2 Mandy Ryan,2 Jameel Nazir,1 Cathy Newman,1 Verity Watson2 1Health Economics and Outcomes Research, Astellas Pharma Europe Ltd., Chertsey, 2Health Economics Research Unit, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK †Dr Ikenwilo passed away on November 27, 2015 Objective: To explore and quantify men’s preferences and willingness to pay (WTP) for attributes of medications for lower urinary tract symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia using a discrete choice experiment. Subjects and methods: Men in the UK aged ≥45 years with moderate-to-severe lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia (based on self-reported International Prostate Symptom Score ≥8) were recruited. An online discrete choice experiment survey was administered. Eligible men were asked to consider different medication scenarios and select their preferred medication according to seven attributes: daytime and nighttime (nocturia) urinary frequency, urinary urgency, sexual and nonsexual side effects, number of tablets/day, and cost/month. A mixed-logit model was used to estimate preferences and WTP for medication attributes. Results: In all, 247 men completed the survey. Men were willing to trade-off symptom improvements and treatment side effects. Men preferred medications that reduced urinary urgency and reduced day- and nighttime urinary frequency. Men preferred medications without side effects (base-case level), but did not care about the number of tablets per day. WTP for symptomatic improvement was £25.33/month for reduced urgency (urge incontinence to mild urgency), and £6.65/month and £1.39/month for each unit reduction in night- and ­daytime urination frequency, respectively. The sexual and nonsexual side effects reduced WTP by up to £30.07/month. There was significant heterogeneity in preferences for most attributes, except for reduced urinary urgency from urge incontinence to mild urgency and no fluid during ejaculation (dry orgasm). Conclusion: To compensate for side effects, a medicine for lower urinary tract symptoms/benign prostatic hyperplasia must provide a combination of benefits, such as reduced urgency of urination plus reduced nighttime and/or reduced daytime urination. Keywords: benign prostatic hyperplasia, discrete choice experiment, erectile dysfunction, lower urinary tract symptoms, storage symptoms, urge incontinence

Purpose: The COMPARE (COMparing treatment options for ProstAte cancer) study aimed to evaluate and quantify the trade-offs patients make between different aspects of active surveillance and definitive therapy., Materials and Methods: A discrete choice experiment tool was used to elicit patient preferences for different treatment characteristics in 34 urology departments. Patients with localized prostate cancer completed the discrete choice experiment within 1 week of being diagnosed and before they made treatment decisions. The discrete choice experiment was pretested (5) and piloted (106) with patients. Patients chose their preferred treatment profile based on the 6 characteristics of treatment type (active surveillance, focal therapy, radical therapy), return to normal activities, erectile function, urinary function, not needing more cancer treatment and 10 to 15-year cancer specific survival. Different tools were designed for patients with low-intermediate (468) and high risk (166) disease. An error components conditional logit model was used to estimate preferences and trade-offs between treatment characteristics., Results: Patients with low-intermediate risk disease were willing to trade 6.99% absolute decrease in survival to have active surveillance over definitive therapy. They were willing to trade 0.75%, 0.46% and 0.19% absolute decrease in survival for a 1-month reduction in time to return to normal activities and 1% absolute improvements in urinary and sexual function, respectively. Patients with high risk disease were willing to trade 3.10%, 1.04% and 0.41% absolute decrease in survival for a 1-month reduction in time to return to normal activities and 1% absolute improvements in urinary and sexual function, respectively., Conclusions: Patients with low-intermediate risk prostate cancer preferred active surveillance to definitive therapy. Patients of all risk levels were willing to trade cancer specific survival for improved quality of life.

Background: Discrete choice experiments (DCEs) are widely used to quantify individuals' preferences for healthcare. Guidelines recommend the design of DCEs should be informed by qualitative research. However, only a few studies go beyond guidelines by fully presenting qualitative and quantitative research jointly together in a mixed methods approach (MMA)., Objectives: Using an example study about men's preferences for medical treatment of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), we demonstrate how qualitative research can complement DCEs to gain a rich understanding of individuals' preferences., Methods: We were the first to combine online discussion groups (ODGs) with an online DCE. A thematic analysis of the ODGs and a conceptual map provided insights into men's quality of life (QoL) with LUTS and relevant treatment attitudes. This was used to design the DCE. Men's willingness to pay (WTP) for these attributes was estimated. Findings from ODGs and DCE were compared to understand WTP and preference heterogeneity., Key Findings: Men mostly valued medicine that reduced urgency and night-time frequencies of urination but avoided sexual side effects. We find heterogeneity in the effect of sexual side effects on men's preferences. The ODGs suggest this is because several men may be sexually inactive due to their age, being widowed or having comorbidities. The ODGs also raised concern about men's awareness of LUTS., Conclusion: We argue that the insights gained into men's preferences for treatment and how LUTS affects men's QoL could not have been obtained by either the qualitative research or the DCE alone.

There is growing need for continuing professional development (CPD) among doctors, especially following the recent introduction of compulsory revalidation for all doctors in the United Kingdom (UK). We use unique datasets from two national surveys of non-training grade doctors working in the National Health Service in Scotland to evaluate doctors' perceptions of need and barriers to CPD. We test for differences over time and also examine differences between doctor grades and for other characteristics such as gender, age, contract type and specialty. Doctors expressed the greatest need for CPD in clinical training, management, and information technology. In terms of perceived barriers to CPD, lack of time was expressed as a barrier by the largest proportion of doctors, as was insufficient clinical cover, lack of funding, and remoteness from main education centres. The strength of perceived need for particular CPD activities and the perceived barriers to CPD varied significantly by doctors' job and personal characteristics. An understanding of the perceived needs and barriers to CPD among doctors is an important precursor to developing effective educational and training programmes that cover their professional practice and also in supporting doctors towards successful revalidation., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The Scottish Government introduced free NHS dental check-ups in April 2006 as a way of encouraging utilisation and improving the oral health of residents. We use data from the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), a nationally representative data of 117761 individual respondents in the United Kingdom covering the period between 2001 and 2008 to evaluate the impact of this policy on utilisation of NHS dental check-ups in Scotland, using a difference-in-difference approach. Results show that there was a 3-4 percent increase in NHS dental check-up in Scotland, compared to the rest of the UK. Results suggest that a removal of financial barrier to dental check-ups does indeed lead to a modest increase in utilisation, and may have wider implications for the delivery of dental care in Scotland., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To examine how the introduction of free eye examinations in Scotland affected people's use of eye care services. Particularly, to assess if more people are now having their eyes examined regularly, and whether there are differences in the way people responded to the policy across socio-economic groups., Methods: Using the British Household Panel Survey, eye test uptake and frequency in Scotland is compared to the rest of the UK pre and post policy. Propensity to have eye tests and responsiveness to the policy is compared across socio-economic groups. In addition, using data available from a chain of private ophthalmic opticians, clinical characteristics of eye examination patients are compared pre- and post-policy., Results: There is evidence that suggests that people responded positively to the policy. In particular, a higher percentage of people in Scotland have their eyes tested after the free eye care policy was introduced. Interestingly, the response to the policy varies between the different socio-economic groups. For the highest earners and most educated groups, the proportion of people having an eye test increased more than for those groups with lower income or lower education., Conclusions: Although the policy succeeded in getting more people to have their eyes tested, the socio-economic differences observed suggest that the policy has not reached the more vulnerable segments in society to the same extent, in particular, those with low education and low income. As a result, eye care services utilisation inequalities have widened in Scotland after the free eye care policy was introduced., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

There is little evidence about the responsiveness of doctors' labour supply to changes in pay. Given substantial increases in NHS expenditure, new national contracts for hospital doctors and general practitioners that involve increases in pay, and the gradual imposition of a ceiling on hours worked through the European Working Time Directive, knowledge of the size of labour supply elasticities is crucial in examining the effects of these major changes. This paper estimates a modified labour supply model for hospital consultants, using data from a survey of consultants in Scotland. Rigidities in wage setting within the NHS mean that the usual specification of the labour supply model is extended by the inclusion of job quality (job satisfaction) in the equation explaining the optimal number of hours worked. Generalised Method of Moments estimation is used to account for the endogeneity of both earnings and job quality. Our results confirm the importance of pay and non-pay factors on the supply of labour by consultants. The results are sensitive to the exclusion of job quality and show a slight underestimation of the uncompensated earnings elasticity (of 0.09) without controlling for the effect of job quality, and 0.12 when we controlled for job quality. Pay increases in the new contract for consultants will only result in small increases in hours worked. Small and non-significant elasticity estimates at higher quantiles in the distribution of hours suggest that any increases in hours worked are more likely for consultants who work part time. Those currently working above the median number of hours are much less responsive to changes in earnings., (Copyright (c) 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Despite their rising numbers in the National Health Service (NHS), the recruitment, retention, morale and educational needs of staff and associate specialist hospital doctors have traditionally not been the focus of attention. A postal survey of all staff grades and associate specialists in NHS Scotland was conducted to investigate the determinants of their job satisfaction. Doctors in both grades were least satisfied with their pay. They were more satisfied if they were treated as equal members of the clinical team, but less satisfied if their workload adversely affected the quality of patient care. With the exception of female associate specialists, respondents who wished to become a consultant were less satisfied with all aspects of their jobs. Associate specialists who worked more sessions also had lower job satisfaction. Non-white staff grades were less satisfied with their job compared with their white counterparts. It is important that associate specialists and staff grades are promoted to consultant posts, where this is desired. It is also important that job satisfaction is enhanced for doctors who do not desire promotion, thereby improving retention. This could be achieved through improved pay, additional clinical training, more flexible working hours and improved status.

Purpose: To investigate the set up and operation of a Managed Clinical Network for cardiac services and assess its impact on patient care., Methods: This single case study used process evaluation with observational before and after comparison of indicators of quality of care and costs. The study was conducted in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland and used a three-level framework. Process evaluation of the network set-up and operation through a documentary review of minutes; guidelines and protocols; transcripts of fourteen semi-structured interviews with health service personnel including senior managers, general practitioners, nurses, cardiologists and members of the public. Outcome evaluation of the impact of the network through interrupted time series analysis of clinical data of 202 patients aged less than 76 years admitted to hospital with a confirmed myocardial infarction one-year pre and one-year post, the establishment of the network. The main outcome measures were differences between indicators of quality of care targeted by network protocols. Economic evaluation of the transaction costs of the set-up and operation of the network and the resource costs of the clinical care of the 202 myocardial infarction patients from the time of hospital admission to 6 months post discharge through interrupted time series analysis. The outcome measure was different in National Health Service resource use., Results: Despite early difficulties, the network was successful in bringing together clinicians, patients and managers to redesign services, exhibiting most features of good network management. The role of the energetic lead clinician was crucial, but the network took time to develop and 'bed down'. Its primary "modus operand" was the development of a myocardial infarction pathway and associated protocols. Of sixteen clinical care indicators, two improved significantly following the launch of the network and nine showed improvements, which were not statistically significant. There was no difference in resource use., Discussion and Conclusions: The Managed Clinical Network made a difference to ways of working, particularly in breaching traditional boundaries and involving the public, and made modest changes in patient care. However, it required a two-year "set-up" period. Managed clinical networks are complex initiatives with an increasing profile in health care policy. This study suggests that they require energetic leadership and improvements are likely to be slow and incremental.