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The quality of parent-child interaction has consistently been associated with child psychosocial outcomes. Postnatal depression (PND) and anxiety (PNA) can have an adverse effect on the parent-child interaction. The Coding Interactive Behaviour (CIB) measure has frequently been used to assess parent-infant interaction quality; however, few have investigated the construct validity. The purpose of this study is to: (1) compare two theoretical models and one data-driven model for best fit and to test the best fitting one for measurement invariance among mothers with and without PND, and (2) compare effects of PND and PNA on the mother-infant interactions. The sample consisted of mothers with PND (n = 236) and a subclinical sample of mothers with elevated symptoms of PND but did not meet criteria for a diagnosis (n = 183) and their infants (aged ≤ 6 months). PND was assessed with a diagnostic interview and PNA using a self-report measure. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the data-driven model, consisting of the composites ‘Maternal Sensitivity’, ‘Child Engagement’, ‘Maternal Social Withdrawal’, and ‘Maternal Controlling Behaviour’, reached the best fit and showed measurement invariance with regard to PND. Factorial ANOVAs showed no effects of PND and PNA on the composites. The study is the first to investigate and find measurement invariance in the CIB, providing evidence of construct validity. The importance of investigating the factor structure of an instrument liable to change due to contextual factors is discussed. The quality of parent-child interaction has consistently been associated with child psychosocial outcomes. Postnatal depression (PND) and anxiety (PNA) can have an adverse effect on the parent-child interaction. The Coding Interactive Behaviour (CIB) measure has frequently been used to assess parent-infant interaction quality; however, few have investigated the construct validity. The purpose of this study is to: (1) compare two theoretical models and one data-driven model for best fit and to test the best fitting one for measurement invariance among mothers with and without PND, and (2) compare effects of PND and PNA on the mother-infant interactions. The sample consisted of mothers with PND (n = 236) and a subclinical sample of mothers with elevated symptoms of PND but did not meet criteria for a diagnosis (n = 183) and their infants (aged ≤ 6 months). PND was assessed with a diagnostic interview and PNA using a self-report measure. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the data-driven model, consisting of the composites ‘Maternal Sensitivity’, ‘Child Engagement’, ‘Maternal Social Withdrawal’, and ‘Maternal Controlling Behaviour’, reached the best fit and showed measurement invariance with regard to PND. Factorial ANOVAs showed no effects of PND and PNA on the composites. The study is the first to investigate and find measurement invariance in the CIB, providing evidence of construct validity. The importance of investigating the factor structure of an instrument liable to change due to contextual factors is discussed.

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) refers to parents’ capacity to reflect on mental states such as their own and their child’s feelings, thoughts, and intentions. Studies suggest that PRF is an important factor in parental behavior; however, only a few studies have examined the effect of early PRF on infant socioemotional development. The Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ) was developed as a brief, multidimensional measure to assess PRF. Recently, a modified version, the PRFQ-I, was suggested as a more accurate measure of PRF in an at-risk sample of mothers of infants. The study aims were to examine the factor structure and factorial invariance across parental gender of the PRFQ-I in a community sample, to compare PRF dimensions across mothers and fathers, and to investigate the association between PRF dimensions and infant socioemotional development. We examined this within a longitudinal design in a community sample of 1243 first-time mothers and 512 fathers. The results supported the expected factor structure of PRFQ-I and invariance across parental gender. Significant differences between mothers and fathers were found on the three PRF dimensions comprised by the questionnaire. The PRF dimensions of pre-mentalizing and certainty about mental states significantly predicted infant socioemotional development. Findings show that the PRFQ-I is a valid measure in parents of infants and suggest that PRF in early parenthood is an important factor in infant socioemotional development. Identification of first-time parents with limited PRF enables early intervention and may thus prevent limited PRF from having potentially adverse effects on infant socioemotional development.

In this article we establish intersubjective meaning-making in infancy as atmospheric. Through qualitative descriptions of five mother–infant dyads in a video-recorded, experimental setting when the infant is 4, 7, 10, and 13 months, we discovered atmospheric appearances with a developmental pattern of atmospheric variations. These appearances, we argue, are contextual and intersubjective monologues. The monologues are similar to what Daniel Stern describes with his concept of “vitality affects,” but they arise as a unified force that envelops the mother and child. As such, we present a new way to address meaning-making in infancy.

Background Infant mental health represents a significant public health issue. The transition to parenthood provides optimal opportunities for supporting parenting competence. Especially parental mentalization, i.e. the caregiver’s ability to notice and interpret the child’s behavior in terms of mental states, is important in infancy where the caregiver-infant communication is based solely on the infant’s behavioral cues. Methods This study evaluates the efficacy of the intervention Understanding Your Baby (UYB) compared to Care As Usual (CAU) in 10 Danish municipalities. UYB aims at promoting parental competence in new parents by supporting them in noticing their infants’ behavioral cues and interpreting them in terms of mental states. Participants will be approximately 1,130 singletons and their parents. Inclusion criteria are first-time parents, minimum 18 years old, living in one of the 10 municipalities, and registered in the Danish Civil Registration Register (CPR). Around 230 health visitors deliver the UYB as part of their routine observation of infant social withdrawal in the Danish home visiting program. During an interaction between the health visitor and the infant, the health visitor articulates specific infant behaviors and helps the caregivers interpret these behaviors to mental states. The study is a controlled parallel group study with data obtained at four time points in two phases: First in the control group receiving the publicly available postnatal care (CAU), secondly in the intervention group after UYB implementation into the existing postnatal services. The primary outcome is maternal competence. Secondary measures include paternal competence, parental stress, parental mentalizing, and infant socioemotional development. Analysis will employ survey data and data from the health visitors’ register. Discussion Results will provide evidence regarding the efficacy of UYB in promoting parenting competences. If proved effective, the study will represent a notable advance to initiating the UYB intervention as part of a better infant mental health strategy in Denmark. Conversely, if UYB is inferior to CAU, this is also important knowledge in regard to promoting parenting competence and infant mental health in a general population. Trial registrationhttps://ClinicalTrials.gov with ID no. NCT03991416. Registered at 19 June 2019—Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03991416

Infant social withdrawal is a risk factor for non-optimal child development; thus, it is important to identify risk factors associated with withdrawal. In a large community sample (N = 19,017), we investigate whether symptoms of maternal and partner postpartum depression (PPD; measured with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and prematurity are predictors of infant social withdrawal (measured with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale). Withdrawal was assessed at 2–3, 4–7 and 8–12 months postpartum. Linear regressions showed that prematurity predicted higher infant social withdrawal at all time points, and maternal symptoms of PPD were positively associated with withdrawal at 2–3 months. Logistic regressions showed that odds for elevated social withdrawal were increased with elevated levels of maternal symptoms of PPD at 2–3 and 8–12 months. Partner's symptoms of PPD were not associated with withdrawal. Future studies should investigate how PPD symptoms and prematurity may impact the individual development of social withdrawal. Infant social withdrawal is a risk factor for non-optimal child development; thus, it is important to identify risk factors associated with withdrawal. In a large community sample (N = 19,017), we investigate whether symptoms of maternal and partner postpartum depression (PPD; measured with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and prematurity are predictors of infant social withdrawal (measured with the Alarm Distress Baby Scale). Withdrawal was assessed at 2–3, 4–7 and 8–12 months postpartum. Linear regressions showed that prematurity predicted higher infant social withdrawal at all time points, and maternal symptoms of PPD were positively associated with withdrawal at 2–3 months. Logistic regressions showed that odds for elevated social withdrawal were increased with elevated levels of maternal symptoms of PPD at 2–3 and 8–12 months. Partner's symptoms of PPD were not associated with withdrawal. Future studies should investigate how PPD symptoms and prematurity may impact the individual development of social withdrawal.

Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) is a risk for disruption of mother-infant interaction. Infants of depressed mothers have been found to display less positive, more negative, and neutral affect. Other studies have found that infants of mothers with PPD inhibit both positive and negative affect. In a sample of 28 infants of mothers with PPD and 52 infants of nonclinical mothers, we examined the role of PPD diagnosis and symptoms for infants' emotional variability, measured as facial expressions, vocal protest, and gaze using microanalysis, during a mother-infant face-to-face interaction. PPD symptoms and diagnosis were associated with (a) infants displaying fewer high negative, but more neutral/interest facial affect events, and (b) fewer gaze off events. PPD diagnosis, but not symptoms, was associated with less infant vocal protest. Total duration of seconds of infant facial affective displays and gaze off was not related to PPD diagnosis or symptoms, suggesting that when infants of depressed mothers display high negative facial affect or gaze off, these expressions are more sustained, indicating lower infant ability to calm down and re-engage, interpreted as a disturbance in self-regulation. The findings highlight the importance of not only examining durations, but also frequencies, as the latter may inform infant emotional variability.La depresión maternal posterior al parto (PPD) representa un riesgo para la alteración en la interacción madre-infante. Se ha encontrado que los infantes de madres depresivas muestran un afecto menos positivo, más negativo y neutral. Otros estudios han concluido con que los infantes de madres con PPD inhiben tanto el afecto positivo como el negativo. En un grupo muestra de 28 infantes de madres con PPD y 52 infantes de un grupo de madres no clínico, examinamos el papel de la diagnosis y síntomas de PPD en la variabilidad emocional de los infantes, medida como expresiones faciales, protesta verbal y mirada, usando microanálisis, durante una interacción cara a cara entre madre e infante. Se asociaron los síntomas y la diagnosis de PPD con 1) los infantes mostrando momentos afectuosos faciales menos negativos altos, pero más neutrales/de interés, y 2) menos momentos de miradas hacia otro lado. Se asoció la diagnosis de PPD, aunque no así los síntomas, con menos protesta verbal del infante. La duración total de segundos de las muestras afectivas faciales y las miradas hacia otro lado por parte del infante no estuvo relacionada con la diagnosis o síntomas de PPD, lo cual sugiere que cuando los infantes de madres depresivas muestran afectos faciales negativos altos o miradas hacia otro lado, estas expresiones son más sostenidas, indicando así la más baja habilidad del infante de calmarse y volver a establecer contacto, interpretado esto como una disrupción en la auto-regulación. Los resultados subrayan la importancia no sólo de examinar las duraciones sino también las frecuencias, ya que estas últimas pudieran informar sobre la variabilidad emocional del infante.La dépression postpartum maternelle (abrégé ici dans le texte DPM) pose un risque de bouleversement de l'interaction mère-bébé. Les recherches ont montré que les bébés de mères déprimées font preuve d'un affect moins positif, plus négatif, et neutre. D'autres études ont prouvé que les bébés de mères avec DPM inhibent à la fois l'affect positif et négatif. Chez un échantillon de 28 bébés de mères avec DPM et 52 bébés de mères non-cliniques, nous avons examiné le rôle du diagnostic de la DPM et les symptômes de la variabilité émotionnelle des bébés, mesurés par les expressions faciales, la réaction vocale, et le regard en utilisant une microanalyse, durant une interaction de face-à-face mère-bébé. Les symptômes de la DPM et le diagnostic ont été liés 1) aux bébés faisant preuve de moins d'instances d'affect facial hautement négatifs mais de plus de neutre/intéressé, et 2) à moins d'instances de regard se perdant. Le diagnostic de DPM, mais non les symptômes, était lié à réaction vocale de protestation du bébé. La durée totale de secondes de démonstration affectives faciales du bébé et du regard se perdant n’était pas liée au diagnostic ou aux symptômes de DPM, suggérant que quand les bébés de mères déprimées font preuve d'un affect très fortement négatif ou d'un regard se perdant, ces expressions sont plus soutenues, indiquant une moindre capacité du bébé à se calmer et à se réengager, interprété comme une perturbation de l'auto-régulation. Les résultats mettent en lumière l'importance qu'il y a à non seulement examiner les durées mais aussi les fréquences, puisque ces dernières peuvent informer la variabilité émotionnelle du bébé.Mütterliche postpartale Depression ist ein Risikofaktor für die emotionale Variabilität des Kindes nach vier Monaten Eine postpartale Depression (PPD) der Mutter stellt ein Risiko für Störungen der Mutter-Kind-Interaktion dar. In einigen Studien wurde festgestellt, dass Säuglinge depressiver Mütter weniger positive, dafür mehr negative und neutrale Affekte zeigen. Andere Studien wiederum haben gezeigt, dass Säuglinge von Müttern mit PPD sowohl positive als auch negative Affekte unterdrücken. In einer Stichprobe von 28 Säuglingen von Müttern mit PPD und 52 Säuglingen von nichtklinischen Müttern untersuchten wir die Rolle, die eine PPD-Diagnose und -Symptome für die emotionale Variabilität von Säuglingen spielen. Die emotionale Variabilität wurde während einer direkten Mutter-Kind-Interaktionen anhand des Gesichtsausdrucks, des verbalen Protests und einer Mikroanalyse des Blicks gemessen. Die PPD-Diagnose und -Symptome konnten mit Säuglingen assoziiert werden, die 1) weniger stark negative, dafür mehr neutrale / interessierte Gesichtsausdrücke zeigten und 2) deren Blick weniger oft abschweifte. Die PPD-Diagnose, jedoch nicht die Symptome, war mit weniger verbalem Protest der Säuglinge assoziiert. Die Gesamtdauer der affektiven Gesichtsausdrücke und des abschweifenden Blickes in Sekunden hing nicht mit der PPD-Diagnose oder den Symptomen zusammen. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass stark negative Gesichtsaffekte oder Wegschauen bei Säuglingen depressiver Mütter anhaltender sind, was auf eine geringere Fähigkeit des Kindes hinweist, sich zu beruhigen und sich wieder auf die Interaktion einzulassen, was als Störung der Selbstregulation interpretiert werden kann. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, wie wichtig es ist, nicht nur die Dauer, sondern auch die Häufigkeit zu untersuchen, da letzteres über die emotionale Variabilität des Kindes Aufschluss geben kann.母親の産後うつ病は、生後4ヶ月時の乳児の感情の可変性に対して危険因子である 母親の産後うつ病(PPD)は、母子相互作用の混乱を起こす危険がある。母親がうつ病である乳児は、肯定的な感情はより少なく、否定的ではっきりしない感情をより示しているのが見られている。他の研究では、産後うつ病の母親の乳児は、肯定的でも否定的でも感情表現が抑制されているという結果が出ている。 28組の産後うつ病の母親と乳幼児、52組の非臨床の母親と乳幼児に対し、PPD診断と症状が、母子の対面相互交流時にマイクロアナリシスを使って、顔の表情、声の主張、注視について測定した乳児の感情の可変性に対してどう関連しているかについて分析した。PPDの症状と診断の両方がある場合は、１) 乳児は、非常に消極的なのは少なく、より多く中立的/興味ある顔の感情表出を示すこと、２) 視線を外すことがより少ないこと、と関連していた。PPDの症状はないけれど診断がある場合は、乳児の声の主張がより少ないということと関連していた。乳児の顔の感情表出と視線を外すことの合計秒数は、PPDの診断にも症状にも関係がなく、そのことはうつ病である母親の乳児が非常に否定的な顔の感情表出や視線を外したりする時、その表現がより長く続くことを示唆し、それは、乳児の自分自身を落ち着かせ、再関与する能力がより低くなることを意味し、それはつまり、自己制御に問題があると解釈できる。結果は、長さだけでなく、頻度も調査する必要性を明らかにしている。なぜなら、後者は乳児の感情の可変性についての情報を得られる可能性があるからである。.母亲的产后抑郁症 (PPD) 是母婴互动中断的危险因素。抑郁母亲的婴儿在互动中表现出更少的积极情绪、更多的消极和中性情绪。其他研究发现, 患有PPD母亲的婴儿会抑制积极和消极的情绪表现。在28名患有PPD母亲的婴儿和52名非临床母亲的婴儿样本中, 我们研究了PPD的诊断和症状对婴儿情绪变异性的影响。在母婴面对面互动过程中, 我们通过微分析计量了婴儿的面部表情、声音抗议及其凝视。PPD的症状和诊断与如下两个表现有关:1) 婴儿表现出更少的消极面部表情, 却表现出更多的中性/感兴趣的面部表情; 2) 更少的凝视。PPD的诊断与更少的婴儿声音抗议相关, 而PPD的症状与其无关。婴儿面部表情和凝视的总持续时间与PPD的诊断或症状无关, 这表明当患抑郁症母亲的婴儿表现出消极的面部表情或凝视时, 这些表情会持续更久, 也同时表明婴儿镇静下来和重新参与的能力较低, 这可被解释为具有自我调节障碍。研究结果强调了检测持续时间和检测频率的重要性, 因为后者可能会影响婴儿的情绪变异性。.الاكتئاب بعد الولادة الأمومية هو عامل مخاطرة في التباين العاطفي للرضع عند أربعة أشهر ملخص الاكتئاب الأمومي بعد الولادة (PPD) يمثل خطر لاضطراب التفاعل بين الأم والرضيع. وقد وجد أن الرضع من الأمهات المكتئبات يظهرون مشاعر أقل إيجابية، وأكثر سلبية ومحايدة. وقد وجدت دراسات أخرى أن الرضع من الأمهات اللاتي يعانين من اكتئاب بعد الولادة يظهرون امتناعا عن كل من المشاعر الايجابية والسلبية. تمت المقارنة بين عينة من 28 رضيعاً من الأمهات من تشخيص (PPD) و52 رضيعاً من الأمهات الأخريات، ودرسنا دور تشخيص PPD وأعراض التغير العاطفي للرضع، الذي يقاس من خلال تعبير الوجه، والاحتجاج الصوتي، والنظرة باستخدام التحليل الدقيق، خلال التفاعل وجهاً لوجه بين الأم والرضيع. ارتبطت أعراض PPD والتشخيص بـ 1) إظهار الرضع لمشاعر سلبية عالية وتعابير وجه أكثر حيادية ، و2) عدد أقل من النظر بعيدا عن الوجه. وكان هناك ارتباط بين تشخيص الاكتئاب وبين الاحتجاج الصوتي الأقل من الرضع ولكن لم يكن هناك ارتباط مع أعراض الاكتئاب. ولم ترتبط المدة الإجمالية لتعبيرات وجه الرضيع بالتشخيص أو الأعراض ، مما يشير إلى أنه عندما يظهر الرضع من الأمهات المكتئبات تأثيرًا سلبيًا عاليًا على الوجه أو ينظرون بعيدا عن الوجه، تكون هذه التعبيرات أكثر استدامة، مما يشير إلى انخفاض قدرة الرضع على الهدوء وإعادة المشاركة، مما يفسر على أنه اضطراب في التنظيم الذاتي. وتبرز النتائج أهمية دراسة المدد الزمنية وكذلك مدى التكرار، لأن هذه الأخيرة قد تساعد على فهم التباين العاطفي للرضع.

Motherhood involves functional brain adaptations within a broad neural network purported to underlie sensitive caregiving behavior. Bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with aberrant brain response to emotional faces within a similar network, which may influence BD mothers’ sensitivity to infant faces. This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study aimed to investigate whether mothers with BD display aberrant neural responses to own infant faces compared to healthy mothers. Twenty-six mothers with BD in remission and 35 healthy mothers underwent fMRI during which they viewed happy and distressed still facial photographs of their own and of unknown infants. After the scan, mothers viewed the pictures again on a computer screen and rated the intensity of infants’ facial emotions and their own emotional response to infant face images. Mothers with BD displayed lower left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) response compared to healthy mothers to own vs. unknown infant faces specifically and abnormal positive functional connectivity between the left and right amygdala and prefrontal regions. BD mothers further displayed stronger deactivation of precuneus and occipital regions to all happy vs. distressed infant faces. After the scan, they rated their infants’ distress and own response to their infants’ distressed faces less negatively than healthy mothers. Blunted dlPFC response and aberrant fronto-limbic connectivity while viewing own infant faces and less negative ratings of own infants’ distress in BD mothers may affect their responses to their own infants in real-life mother-infant interactions.

Ongoing disturbances in parental psychological functioning are proposed as one of the mechanisms linking maternal PPD and adverse child development. We examined the effect of maternal PPD on mothers’ and fathers’ parenting stress and depressive symptoms at child age five. Depressive symptoms and parenting stress were assessed using self-report questionnaires at child age five in a sample of nonclinical mothers (n = 31) and mothers previously diagnosed with PPD (n = 12) and their partners. Maternal PPD diagnosis was associated with mothers’ but not fathers’ depressive symptoms at child age five. Maternal PPD diagnosis was associated with more parental distress in mothers and fathers, although, for mothers, this relationship was better explained by own concurrent depressive symptoms. Finally, maternal PPD diagnosis was associated with mothers reporting more difficult parent–child interactions. Overall, the study shows that maternal PPD diagnosis has long-term negative effects on both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting resources.

Background Early identification of infants at-risk is imperative for proper referral to intervention programs. The Alarm Distress Baby Scale (ADBB) is an eight-item observer-rated screening tool detecting social withdrawal in infants. Previously, a shortened five-item version of the scale (m-ADBB) has been proposed. To date, few studies have examined the validity of the two scales, and no studies have examined the validity of the ADBB after implementation as a universal screening tool in primary care. Objective The aim of this study is to use Item Response Theory (IRT) to examine the construct validity of the ADBB when used by public health visitors in primary care. Methods Participants were 24,752 infants (aged: 2-12.9 months) screened by public health visitors using the ADBB. Screenings were categorized into three waves according to the infant's age at the screening time (2-3.9 months, 4-7.9 months, and 8-12.9 months). Analyses were conducted separately on each wave. We checked IRT assumptions: (a) Unidimensionality, (b) Monotonicity, (c) Local independence, and (d) No DIF in relation to infant sex and gestational age. The 2PLM was used to assess model fit and estimate model parameters. Results Items fulfilled assumptions regarding unidimensionality, monotonicity, and no clinical and significant DIF. Local independence was not present for all items (i.e. 2, 7, and 8). The items showed moderate to good discriminatory abilities (alpha values ≥ 1.11) and discriminated best above average levels of social withdrawal (theta values ≥ 1.33). Items 7 and 8 showed nearly identical ICC suggesting that the two items discriminate equally well at the same level of social withdrawal. In addition, items 4 and 6 discriminated best at very high levels of social withdrawal, which might be of limited interest for screening purposes. Finally, the items showed similar patterns in terms of discrimination and location parameters across the three waves. Conclusions The ADBB shows several psychometric strengths when used by public health visitors in primary care, and the items show good discriminatory abilities at the levels of social withdrawal of interest for screening purposes. Yet, the results also suggest that for first-line screening, the validity of the scale might be improved with the removal of items 4, 6, and 8 as suggested in the m-ADBB. However, before recommending implementation of the m-ADBB, studies comparing the criterion-related validity of the two scales are needed.

Background Anxiety in the ante- and postnatal period is prevalent, often co-occurs with depression, and can have adverse consequences for the infant. Therefore, perinatal mental health screening programs should not only focus on depression but also on detecting anxiety. However, in many already implemented perinatal screening programs, adding extra screening instruments is not feasible. We examine the utility of a subscale of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) consisting of items 3, 4, and 5 (EPDS-3A) for detecting anxiety in new mothers. Methods We used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the presence of the EPDS-3A found in a previous study (n = 320) where exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used. For the CFA we used a sample of new mothers (n = 442) with children aged 2–11 months recruited from the same population from which mothers for the previous study was recruited. Three models were tested and compared. Receiver operating characteristics of the EPDS-3A were investigated in relation to anxiety caseness status on the combined sample (N = 762). Sample weighing was used to match the dataset to the target population. Cross tabulation was used to investigate the proportion of anxiety cases identified by the EPDS-3A above those identified with the total EPDS. Results The presence of the EPDS-3A was confirmed. An EFA-driven, two-dimensional 7-item model showed the best data fit with one factor representing the anxiety subscale consisting of items 3, 4, and 5. An EPDS-3A score of ≥ 5 was the most optimal for identifying cases of anxiety (sensitivity: 70.9; specificity: 92.2; AUC: 0.926). Further, we found that the EPDS-3A identifies an additional 2.5% of anxiety cases that would not have been identified with the total EPDS. Conclusions The EPDS-3A can be used as a time-efficient screening for possible anxiety in ante- and postnatal mothers. However, adding the EPDS-3A to routine screening with the total EPDS does not lead to a substantial increase in the number of women identified. In line with previous studies, this study confirms that the EPDS identifies anxiety in addition to depression. Therefore, assessment and treatment adjusted to the specific emotional difficulties is imperative.

BackgroundAtypical neurocognitive responses to emotional stimuli are core features of unipolar depression (UD) and bipolar disorder (BD). For mothers with these mood disorders, this may influence interactions with their infants and consequently infant development. The study aimed to investigate psychophysiological and cognitive responses to infant emotional stimuli, and their relation to mother–infant interaction and infant development, in mothers with BD or UD in full or partial remission.MethodsFour months after birth, mothers' cognitive responses to emotional infant stimuli were assessed with computerized tasks, while their facial expressions, galvanic skin responses (GSR), gazes, and fixations were recorded. Infant development and mother–infant interactions were also assessed.ResultsWe included 76 mothers: 27 with BD, 13 with UD, and 36 without known psychiatric disorders, and their infants. Mothers with BD and UD were in full or partial remission and showed blunted GSR and spent less time looking at infant stimuli (unadjusted p values < 0.03). Mothers with BD showed subtle positive neurocognitive biases (unadjusted p valuesp values < 0.02). Across all mothers, some measures of atypical infant emotion processing correlated with some measures of delays in infant development and suboptimal mother–infant interaction (unadjusted p valuesConclusionsMothers with mood disorders in full or partial remission showed atypical cognitive and psychophysiological response to emotional infant stimuli, which could be associated with mother–infant interactions and infant development. The study is explorative, hypothesis generating, and should be replicated in a larger sample. Investigation of the long-term implications of reduced maternal sensitivity is warranted.

This study aimed to examine longitudinal developmental patterns in the daily amounts of screen time and technoference in infants aged 2, 4, 7, and 11 months and to examine associations with maternal sociodemographic factors across all age groups.The results showed that the amount of screen time varied between 6 and 17 min a day, while interruptions in mother-infant interactions due to maternal use of digital technology occurred between 5 and 6 times a day. There was a significant increase in infant screen time from 2 to 4 months, from 4–7 months, and from 7–11 months, and in technoference from 2 to 4 months and from 4–7 months. Maternal age and household income were not associated with infant screen time, but maternal educational level was negatively associated with infant screen time throughout the first year. No associations were found between technoference and maternal age, maternal educational level, or household income.Future research focusing on infant screen time and technoference should aim at including samples that reflect the general population, include measures of screen time and technoference that do not rely on parental report, and include measures of the effects of early infant screen time and technoference on later development.

In this study, we examine the convergent validity of a measure of maternal looming derived using a motion capture system, and the temporal coordination between maternal loom and infant gaze using an event-based bootstrapping procedure. The sample comprised 26 mothers diagnosed with postpartum depression, 43 nondepressed mothers, and their 4-month-old infants. Mother-infant interactions were recorded during a standard face-to-face setting using video cameras and a motion capture system. First, results showed that maternal looming was correlated with a globally coded measure of maternal overriding. Maternal overriding is an intrusive behavior occurring when the mother re-directs the infant’s attention to parent-led activities. Thus, this result confirms that maternal looming can be considered a spatial intrusion in early interactions. Second, results showed that compared to nondepressed dyads, depressed dyads were more likely to coordinate maternal loom and infant gaze in a Loom-in-Gaze-pattern. We discuss the use of automated measurement for analyzing mother-infant interactions, and how the Loom-in-Gaze pattern can be interpreted as a disturbance in infant self-regulation.

The ability to regulate affect is important for later adaptive child development. In the first months of life, infants have limited resources for regulating their own affects (e.g. by gaze aversion), and for this reason they are dependent on external affect regulation from their parents. Previous research suggests that touch is an important means through which parents regulate their infants' affects. Also, previous research has shown that post-partum depressed (PPD) mothers and nonclinical mothers differ in their touching behaviors when interacting with their infants. We examined the affect-regulating function of affectionate, caregiving and playful maternal touch in 24 PPD and 47 nonclinical mother-infant dyads when infants were four months old. In order to investigate the direction of effects and to account for repeated observations, the data were analysed using time-window sequential analysis and Generalized Estimating Equations. The results showed that mothers adapt their touching behaviors according to negative infant facial affect; thus, when the infant displays negative facial affect, the mothers were less likely to initiate playful touch and more likely to initiate caregiving touch. Unexpectedly, only in the PPD dyads, were the mothers more likely to initiate affectionate touch when their infants were displaying negative facial affect. Our results also showed that mothers use specific touch types to regulate infants' negative and positive affects; infants are more likely to initiate positive affect during periods with playful touch, and more likely to terminate negative affect during periods with caregiving touch.

When we reach to grasp something, we need to take into account both the properties of the object we are grasping and the intention we have in mind. Previous research has found these constraints to be visible in the reach-to-grasp kinematics, but there is no consensus on which kinematic parameters are the most sensitive. To examine this, a systematic literature search and meta-analyses were performed. The search identified studies assessing how changes in either an object property or a prior intention affect reach-to-grasp kinematics in healthy participants. Hereafter, meta-analyses were conducted using a restricted maximum likelihood random effect model. The meta-analyses showed that changes in both object properties and prior intentions affected reach-to-grasp kinematics. Based on these results, the authors argue for a tripartition of the reach-to-grasp movement in which the accelerating part of the reach is primarily associated with transporting the hand to the object (i.e., extrinsic object properties), the decelerating part of the reach is used as a preparation for object manipulation (i.e., prepare the grasp or the subsequent action), and the grasp is associated with manipulating the object's intrinsic properties, especially object size.

The ability to express emotions is a protective factor for infant development. Despite the multimodal nature of emotion expression, research has mainly focused on facial expressions of emotions. The present study examined motor activity and spatial proximity in relation to positive and negative infant facial expressions and maternal postpartum depression during face-to-face interactions at four months. Video cameras and a motion capture system recorded mother-infant interactions. Repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to analyze the effect of micro-coded infant positive and negative facial affect and maternal depression diagnosis on automatically extracted measures of motor activity and spatial proximity, including speed of mothers’ arm movements (nondepressed = 32; PPD = 16), and infants’ arm movements (nondepressed = 29; PPD = 17), and head distance (nondepressed = 45; PPD = 27). Results showed that the speed of infants’ arm movements and head distance were greater during negative compared to positive infant affect. Further, the results demonstrated that the speed of PPD mothers’ arm movements was slower than the speed of nondepressed mothers’ arm movements. In the discussion, it is suggested that increased speed of infant arm movements during negative affect functions to elicit faster caregiving responses, and that increased head distance during negative infant affect functions to decrease the intensity of the interaction. Finally, the slower speed of arm movements in PPD mothers suggests psychomotor retardation, which is proposed to limit these mothers’ abilities to engage their infants during the interaction.

The way a mother touches her infant plays a central role in maternal caregiving behavior. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine associations between touch and positive and negative caregiving behavior and whether this association differed in mothers with and without postpartum depression, an episode of depressive disorder following childbirth. Positive caregiving behavior was operationalized as sensitive behavior, i.e. the mother's ability to notice the child's signals, interpret these signals correctly and respond to them promptly and appropriately. Negative caregiving behavior was operationalized as overriding behavior, i.e. behavior which disturbs the child's behavior or redirects the child's attention to follow the parent's agenda. Seventy mother-infant dyads (44 in the nonclinical group and 26 in the clinical group) participated in a 10minutes long mother-infant interaction at four months postpartum. The sample is part of an archival dataset of a longitudinal study investigating the parent-child relationship and child development. Three minutes of the interaction were coded a) microanalytically for touch, using a modified version of the Maternal Touch Scale (Beebe et al., 2010), and b) macroanalytically for sensitive and overriding behavior, using the Coding Interactive Behavior measure (Feldman, 1998). Hierarchical regression analyses with bootstrapping showed that caregiving touch, but not affectionate and static touch, was associated with sensitive behavior across the whole sample. Moreover, playful, but not rough-intrusive touch, was associated with overriding behavior across the whole sample. Associations did not differ between mothers with and without postpartum depression.

Adverse childhood experiences can have far-reaching implications for later mental health, including in parenthood. Research suggests that childhood adversity is a risk factor for later parenting stress, yet the underlying mechanisms are only just being uncovered. Uncovering these mechanisms is important to diminish heightened levels of parenting stress and thereby reduce adverse effects of elevated parenting stress on child and parent outcomes. In a cross-sectional study using a sample of mothers of 2-10 month-old infants (N = 367) we first examined depressive symptoms as a mediator, and then, the indirect effect of adult attachment through depressive symptoms between childhood adversity and parenting stress. Results showed that the effect of childhood adversity on parenting stress was mediated by an indirect pathway through depressive symptoms alone, and an indirect pathway of adult attachment through depressive symptoms. The indirect effect of adult attachment through depressive symptoms was found to be stronger than the indirect effect of depressive symptoms alone, supporting the hypothesis that adult attachment insecurity together with depressive symptoms are particularly important risk factors to be considered in this relationship. Results suggest that childhood adversity is a risk factor for parenting stress, and not a determinant of later parenting stress per se. Instead, mediators in this association, adult attachment, and depressive symptoms, were identified as potential targets of intervention to prevent negative effects of childhood adversity on parenting stress. A limitation of the study lies in its cross-sectional design. Future studies should examine these associations longitudinally to allow for interpretation of causality.