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Objectives: Implementing whole-genome sequencing (WGS) technologies in clinical microbiology laboratories can increase the amount and quality of information available for healthcare practitioners. In this study, we analysed the applicability of this method and determined the distribution of bacterial species processed in clinical settings in Denmark., Methods: We performed a point-prevalence study of all bacterial isolates (n = 2,009) processed and reported in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratories in Denmark in one day in January 2018. We compared species identification as performed by classical methods (MALDI-TOF) and by bioinformatics analysis (KmerFinder and rMLST) of WGS (Illumina NextSeq) data. We compared the national point-prevalence of bacterial isolates observed in clinical settings with the research attention given to those same genera in scientific literature., Results: The most prevalent bacterium was Escherichia coli isolated from urine (n = 646), followed by Staphylococcus spp. from skin or soft tissues (n = 197). The distribution of bacterial species throughout the country was not homogeneous. We observed concordance of species identification for all methods in 95.7% (n = 1,919) of isolates, furthermore obtaining concordance for 99.7% (n = 1,999) at genus level. The number of scientific publications in the country did not correlate with the number of bacterial isolates of each genera analysed in this study., Conclusions: WGS technologies have the potential to be applied in clinical settings for routine diagnostics purposes. This study also showed that bioinformatics databases should be continuously improved and results from local point-prevalence surveys should not be applied at national levels without previously determining possible regional variations., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The number of children in daycare centers (DCCs) is rising. This increases exposure to microorganisms and infectious diseases. Little is known about which bacteria and viruses are present in the DCC environment and where they are located. In the study described in this article, the authors set out to determine the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria and viruses and to find the most contaminated fomites in DCCs. Fifteen locations in each DCC were sampled for bacteria, respiratory viruses, and gastrointestinal viruses. The locations were in the toilet, kitchen, and playroom areas and included nursery pillows, toys, and tables, among other things. Coliform bacteria were primarily found in the toilet and kitchen areas whereas nasopharyngeal bacteria were found mostly on toys and fabric surfaces in the playroom. Respiratory viruses were omnipresent in the DCC environment, especially on the toys.

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by increased insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. Type 2 diabetes is also associated with low-grade inflammation and increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α. TNF-α has been shown to impair peripheral insulin signaling in vitro and in vivo. However, it is unclear whether TNF-α may also affect endogenous glucose production (EGP) during fasting and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in vivo. We hypothesized that low-dose TNF- α would increase EGP and attenuate GSIS. Recombinant human TNF-α or placebo was infused in healthy, nondiabetic young men (n = 10) during a 4-hour basal period followed by an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT). TNF-α lowered insulin levels by 12% during the basal period (P < 0.05). In response to the IVGTT, insulin levels increased markedly in both trials, but there was no difference between trials. Compared to placebo, TNF-α did not affect EGP during the basal period. Our results indicate that TNF-α acutely lowers basal plasma insulin levels but does not impair GSIS. The mechanisms behind this are unknown but we suggest that it may be due to TNF-α increasing clearance of insulin from plasma without impairing beta-cell function or hepatic insulin sensitivity.

Context: Skeletal muscle wasting has been associated with elevations in circulating inflammatory cytokines, in particular TNF-alpha., Objective: In this study, we investigated whether TNF-alpha affects human systemic and skeletal muscle protein turnover via a 4-h recombinant human (rh) TNF-alpha infusion. We hypothesize that TNF-alpha increases human muscle protein breakdown and/or inhibits synthesis., Subjects and Methods: Using a randomized, controlled, crossover design, postabsorptive healthy young males (n = 8) were studied 2 h under basal conditions followed by a 4-h infusion of either rhTNF-alpha (700 ng . m(-2) . h(-1)) or 20% human albumin (control), which was the vehicle of rhTNF-alpha. Systemic and skeletal muscle protein turnover was estimated by a combination of tracer dilution methodology (primed continuous infusion of l-[ring-(2)H(5)]phenylalanine and l-[(15)N-leucine], with prime of l-[ring-(2)H(4)]tyrosine) and femoral arterial-venous differences over the leg and muscle biopsies., Results: Plasma TNF-alpha concentration rapidly increased from basal levels of approximately 0.7 to 17 pg . ml(-1) with rhTNF-alpha infusion. Whole body protein synthesis, breakdown, and net degradation were similar after the basal and infusion period of the control and rhTNF-alpha trials. Skeletal muscle, musculus vastus lateralis, protein fractional synthetic rate was not different over 4 h of control or rhTNF-alpha (rate of incorporation of (15)N-leucine). Muscle protein turnover determined with the phenylalanine three-compartment model showed similar muscle synthesis, breakdown, and net muscle degradation after 2-h basal and after 4-h control or rhTNF-alpha infusion., Conclusion: This study is the first to show in humans that TNF-alpha does not affect systemic and skeletal muscle protein turnover, when acutely elevated for 4 h to moderate levels not causing adverse effects.

Context: Low-grade systemic inflammation is a feature of most lifestyle-related chronic diseases. Enhanced TNF-alpha concentrations have been implicated in the development of hyperlipidemia., Objective: We hypothesized that an acute elevation of TNF-alpha in plasma would cause an increase in lipolysis, increasing circulatory free fatty acid (FFA) levels., Subjects and Methods: Using a randomized controlled, crossover design, healthy young male individuals (n = 10) received recombinant human (rh) TNF-alpha (700 ng/m(-2).h(-1)) for 4 h, and energy metabolism was evaluated using a combination of tracer dilution methodology and arterial-venous differences over the leg., Results: Plasma TNF-alpha levels increased from 0.7 +/- 0.04 to 16.7 +/- 1.8 pg/ml, and plasma IL-6 increased from 1.0 +/- 0.2 to 9.2 +/- 1.0 pg/ml (P < 0.05) after 4-h rhTNF-alpha infusion. Here, we demonstrate that 4-h rhTNF-alpha infusion increases whole body lipolysis by 40% (P < 0.05) with a concomitant increase in FFA clearance, with no changes in skeletal muscle FFA uptake, release, or oxidation. Of note, systemic glucose turnover and lactate and catecholamine levels were unaffected by rhTNF-alpha infusion., Conclusion: This study demonstrates that a relatively low dose of rhTNF-alpha induces systemic lipolysis and that the skeletal muscle fat metabolism is unaffected.

In response to exercise, both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells are mobilized to the blood, but the levels of these cells decline below preexercise values in the postexercise period. T cells are functionally polarized, depending on the cytokines they produce. Type 1 cells produce, e.g., interferon (INF)-gamma, whereas type 2 produce, e.g., interleukin (IL)-4. It was recently demonstrated that exercise induces a decrease in the percentage of type 1 T cells. The present study further investigated the mechanisms underlying the exercise-induced shift in the balance between type 1 and type 2 cytokine-producing cells. Seven healthy men performed 1.5 h of treadmill running with blood samples drawn before exercise, at the end of exercise, and 2 h after exercise. Intracellular expression of IFN-gamma, IL-2, and IL-4 was detected in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells after stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and ionomycin. Intracellular expression of IFN-gamma within CD8(+) cells was decreased in the postexercise period compared with values obtained immediately after exercise, whereas the expression of IL-2 and IL-4 did not change within the CD4(+) and CD8(+) cell populations. The decrease in IFN-gamma-producing CD8(+) T cells postexercise was negatively correlated with a decrease in percentage of memory T cells within the CD8(+) cells (r = -0.94; P < or = 0.002). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the exercise-induced change in type 1 cytokine-producing T cells is related to a decline in memory cells.

To examine the plasma interleukin (IL)-6 response in elderly (E) and young (Y) humans, 10 E and 10 Y subjects completed 60 min of eccentric lower limb exercise at the same relative oxygen uptake. Plasma IL-6 was measured before, immediately after, and 5 days into recovery from exercise, as were the biochemical markers of muscle damage, creatine kinase (CK), and myoglobin. In both groups, IL-6 increased (P < 0.05) immediately after exercise and peaked 4 h after exercise at 4.35 +/- 1.7 vs. 5.05 +/- 3.17 pg/ml for E and Y subjects, respectively. However, the increase in IL-6 in both groups was modest relative to the increases in CK peaking at 539 +/- 413 vs. 10,301 +/- 5,863 U/l for E and Y subjects, respectively. In addition, the increase in IL-6 was less pronounced (P < 0.05) in E subjects compared with Y subjects. These results suggest that IL-6 increases progressively after eccentric exercise, suggesting that this increase is related to muscle damage. However, the modest increase in IL-6, despite large increases in CK, suggests that the IL-6 response to muscle damage does not make an important contribution to the large increase in IL-6 observed during concentric exercise of long duration. Our data also suggest that aging may be associated with impaired repair mechanisms for exercise-induced muscle damage.

The present double-blinded, placebo-controlled study investigated whether antioxidant vitamin supplementation was able to modulate the cytokine and lymphocyte responses after strenuous eccentric exercise. Furthermore, muscle enzyme release was examined to see whether antioxidant treatment could reduce muscle damage. Twenty male recreational runners randomly received either antioxidants (500 mg of vitamin C and 400 mg of vitamin E) or placebo for 14 days before and 7 days after a 5% downhill 90-min treadmill run at 75% .VO(2 max). Although the supplemented group differed significantly with regard to plasma vitamin concentration before and after exercise when compared with the placebo group, the two groups showed identical exercise-induced changes in cytokine, muscle enzyme, and lymphocyte subpopulations. The plasma level of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 receptor antagonist increased 20- and 3-fold after exercise. The plasma level of creatine kinase was increased sixfold the day after exercise. The concentrations of CD4+ memory T cells, CD8+ memory and naïve T cells, and natural killer cells increased at the end of exercise. The total lymphocyte concentration was below prevalues in the postexercise period. In conclusion, the present study does not support the idea that exercise-induced inflammatory responses are induced by free oxygen radicals.