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Since its coinage ca. 1850 AD by Philip Barker Webb, the biogeographical region of Macaronesia, consisting of the North Atlantic volcanic archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira with the tiny Selvagens, the Canaries and Cabo Verde, and for some authors different continental coastal strips, has been under dispute. Herein, after a brief introduction on the terminology and purpose of regionalism, we recover the origins of the Macaronesia name, concept and geographical adscription, as well as its biogeographical implications and how different authors have positioned themselves, using distinct terrestrial or marine floristic and/or faunistic taxa distributions and relationships for accepting or rejecting the existence of this biogeographical region. Four main issues related to Macaronesia are thoroughly discussed: (i) its independence from the Mediterranean phytogeographical region; (ii) discrepancies according to different taxa analysed; (iii) its geographical limits and the role of the continental enclave(s), and, (iv) the validity of the phytogeographical region level. We conclude that Macaronesia has its own identity and a sound phytogeographical foundation, and that this is mainly based on three different floristic components that are shared by the Macaronesian core (Madeira and the Canaries) and the outermost archipelagos (Azores and Cabo Verde). These floristic components are: (i) the Palaeotropical‐Tethyan Geoflora, formerly much more widely distributed in Europe and North Africa and currently restricted to the three northern archipelagos (the Azores, Madeira and the Canaries); (ii) the African Rand Flora, still extant in the coastal margins of Africa and Arabia, and present in the southern archipelagos (Madeira, the Canaries and Cabo Verde), and (iii) the Macaronesian neoendemic floristic component, represented in all the archipelagos, a result of allopatric diversification promoted by isolation of Mediterranean ancestors that manage to colonize Central Macaronesia and, from there, the outer archipelagos. Finally, a differentiating floristic component recently colonized the different archipelagos from the nearest continental coast, providing them with different biogeographic flavours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tribe Loteae of the family Leguminosae has major centers of diversity in the Mediterranean Region and California. It is used here to illustrate different traditions of taxonomic interpretation of infraspecific variation among researchers in different continents. Recent accounts of European and Mediterranean taxa commonly make an emphasis on recognizing subspecies. In contrast, accounts of North American Loteae recognize all infraspecific taxa as varieties. Harmonization of taxonomic concepts across continents is essential for a more accurate representation of data in global biodiversity databases. It is reasonable to use the rank of subspecies for geographically defined infraspecific units with localized zones of intergradation. Such subspecies may be at least partially compatible across continents and taxonomic groups. In the present paper, we discuss taxa traditionally included in or associated with Acmispon glaber (Vogel) Brouillet (=Syrmatium glabrum Vogel) and demonstrate a need for recognizing three species, of which one has three geographically defined subspecies. Required nomenclatural combinations are proposed. It is proposed that subspecies rather than varieties should be recognized in a number of other species of North American Loteae (and other plant groups). Inland subspecies of Acmispon glaber and A. maritimus offer an opportunity for comparative analysis in an eco-evo-devo framework.

Ullung Island is an oceanic island in the Sea of Japan about 130 km distant from the Korean peninsula. The biota of this oceanic island is thought to be derived from the closest continental region while the importance of long-distance dispersal from other areas for the formation of the Ullung Island biota was considered negligible. In this study, we have examined the origin of the Ullung Island-endemic land snail Karaftohelix adamsi (Kuroda & Hukuda, 1944) using a molecular phylogenetic approach with two mitochondrial (COI and 16S rRNA) and nuclear (ITS regions) DNA sequences. Our results revealed that K. adamsi has originated from the northernmost region of the Japanese archipelago or Sakhalin Island, most likely from Rebun Island of Hokkaido, by long-range dispersal across a distance of 1200 km. This finding reveals that the biota of the oceanic Ullung Island has not exclusively originated from the Asian mainland, but that some elements have originated from the more distant archipelago of Japan and the Far East of Russia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Islands host high numbers of endemic species, and the latter are especially exposed to human-driven habitat alteration because their population size is constrained by the limited space and resources found in insular systems. Extreme events linked with climate change and direct anthropogenic stressors may synergistically affect endemic species, and even push them to the brink of extinction. Bats include many insular endemics whose life traits make them excellent candidates to test the effects of both climate-change driven events and direct human disturbance. The Mediterranean island of Sardinia is home to the endemic long-eared bat Plecotus sardus. Within the island, this recently described species is restricted to a limited range where suitable habitat is present. This makes the species extremely vulnerable to human action. Here we use Plecotus sardus as a model to assess the response of insular endemic bats to climate change and human disturbance, exploring demographic trends across two decades. Overall, roost count data for all known reproductive sites showed a steep (-63.4% between 2003 and 2020) population decline, so that the current estimated population size is only 36.5% of that observed in 2003. Colony growth rates are strongly affected by recurring wildfires around reproductive sites, summer precipitation and temperature extremes, pointing to climate change as a primary threat to the species along with direct human interference. Such anthropogenic pressures may therefore rapidly expose island endemic bats to a high extinction risk. Based on our analysis, Plecotus sardus is among the most threatened mammals, and likely the rarest bat species, in Europe. Thus, we urge that (1) similar assessments are conducted on other insular endemic bats in Mediterranean Europe, (2) IUCN Redlist categories are revised according to new analyses, and (3) recovery action plans are immediately developed and implemented to revert the current population trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With thousands of vertebrate species now threatened with extinction, there is an urgent need to understand and mitigate the causes of wildlife collapse. Rails (Aves: Rallidae), being the most extinction-prone bird family globally, and with one-third of extant rail species now threatened or near threatened, are an emphatic case in point. Here, we undertook a global synthesis of the temporal and spatial threat patterns for Rallidae and determined conservation priorities and gaps. We found two key pathways in the threat pattern for rails. One follows the same trajectory as extinct rails, where island endemic and flightless rails are most threatened, mainly due to invasive predators. The second, created by the diversification of anthropogenic activities, involves continental rails, threatened mainly by agriculture, natural system modifications, and residential and commercial development. Indonesia, the USA, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Cuba were the priority countries identified by our framework incorporating species' uniqueness and the level of endangerment, but also among the countries that lack conservation actions the most. Future efforts should predominantly target improvements in ecosystem protection and management, as well as ongoing research and monitoring. Forecasting the impacts of climate change on island endemic rails will be particularly valuable to protect rails.

Aim: The accumulation of species through time has been proposed to have a hump‐shaped relationship on volcanic islands (highest species richness during intermediate stages of an island's lifespan). Change in topographic complexity (TC) of islands over time is assumed to follow the same relationship. However, TC can be measured in different ways and may not have the same impact across taxonomic groups. Here, we quantify TC across the Galápagos Islands and test the assumption that TC follows a predictable trajectory with island age. Subsequently, we ask whether including TC improves statistical models seeking to explain variation in species richness across islands. Location: Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador. Taxon: Native and endemic terrestrial animals and plants. Methods: For each island, we generated eight TC indices from a 30‐m resolution digital elevation model. We tested for a relationship between each index and island age, and whether it significantly contributes to observed variation in species richness, using 11 different models for 12 taxonomic groups across the Galápagos Islands. Results: Four TC indices were significantly negatively correlated with either island age or ontogenetic age and only one index followed the hump‐shaped relationship with age. No index consistently contributed to the variation in species richness for all taxonomic groups. However, for all 12 taxonomic groups, incorporating at least one TC index in modelling species richness improved one or more models. The most common TC index improving models was standard deviation of slope, although each index improved at least five models across all taxa. Different factors predicted taxon‐specific richness, and habitat diversity was significant for all taxa. Main conclusions: Topographic complexity is an important component influencing species richness, but its impact likely differs among taxonomic groups and different scales. Therefore, future studies should incorporate broad, multi‐dimensional measures of TC to understand the biological importance of TC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tribe Loteae of the family Leguminosae has major centers of diversity in the Mediterranean Region and California. It is used here to illustrate different traditions of taxonomic interpretation of infraspecific variation among researchers in different continents. Recent accounts of European and Mediterranean taxa commonly make an emphasis on recognizing subspecies. In contrast, accounts of North American Loteae recognize all infraspecific taxa as varieties. Harmonization of taxonomic concepts across continents is essential for a more accurate representation of data in global biodiversity databases. It is reasonable to use the rank of subspecies for geographically defined infraspecific units with localized zones of intergradation. Such subspecies may be at least partially compatible across continents and taxonomic groups. In the present paper, we discuss taxa traditionally included in or associated with Acmispon glaber (Vogel) Brouillet (=Syrmatium glabrum Vogel) and demonstrate a need for recognizing three species, of which one has three geographically defined subspecies. Required nomenclatural combinations are proposed. It is proposed that subspecies rather than varieties should be recognized in a number of other species of North American Loteae (and other plant groups). Inland subspecies of Acmispon glaber and A. maritimus offer an opportunity for comparative analysis in an eco-evo-devo framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Populations of Carex sect. Rhynchocystis (Cyperaceae) from the Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores and Madeira) have traditionally been treated either as a variety of the widely distributed Western Palearctic C. pendula, or directly synonymized under it. However, recent phylogenetic studies have shown that Azorean populations of C. pendula display a certain degree of differentiation from mainland plants, while the phylogenetic relationships of Madeiran populations remain unclear. Here we perform an integrated systematic study focused on the Macaronesian populations of Carex sect. Rhynchocystis to elucidate their phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic status. We reconstructed a molecular phylogeny based on five DNA regions and conducted a multivariate morphological analysis. Divergence time estimates show that the Macaronesian populations can be traced back to a Plio-Pleistocene origin. Our results suggest that these island populations of C. pendula are better treated as two distinct species within Carex sect. Rhynchocystis (i.e. C. leviosa from the Azores and C. sequeirae from Madeira). We provide morphological characters to differentiate the new species from C. pendula s. s., detailed descriptions of the three taxa, a revised key for the entire section, as well as detailed analytical drawings of the two newly described species. We also perform a critical evaluation of the taxonomic diversity of Carex in the Azores and Madeira. Finally, we informally assessed the conservation status of the new species at a global scale under IUCN categories and criteria, resulting in the proposal of the categories Least Concern for C. leviosa and Critically Endangered for C. sequeirae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Threats faced by narrowly distributed endemic plant species in the face of the Earth's sixth mass extinction and climate change exposure are especially severe for taxa on islands. We investigated the current and projected distribution and range changes of Cochemiea halei, an endemic island cactus. This taxon is of conservation concern, currently listed as vulnerable on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List and as a species of special concern under Mexican federal law. The goals of this study are to (a) identify the correlations between climate variables and current suitable habitat for C. halei; (b) determine whether the species is a serpentine endemic or has a facultative relationship with ultramafic soils; and (c) predict range changes of the species based on climate change scenarios. Location: The island archipelago in Bahía Magdalena on the Pacific coast, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Methods: We used temperature and precipitation variables at 30‐arc second resolution and soil type, employing multiple species distribution modeling methods, to identify important climate and soil conditions driving current habitat suitability. The best model of current suitability is used to predict possible effects of four climate change scenarios based on best‐case to worst‐case representative concentration pathways, with projected climate data from two general circulation models, over two time periods. Main conclusions: The occurrence of the species is found to be strongly correlated with ultramafic soils. The most important climate predictor for habitat suitability is annual temperature range. The species is predicted to undergo range contractions from 21% to 53%, depending on the severity and duration of exposure to climate change. The broader implications for a wide range of narrowly adapted, threatened, and endemic plant species indicate an urgent need for threat assessment based on habitat suitability and climate change modeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the eight extant genera of primitively segmented spiders, family Liphistiidae, two are confined to East Asian islands, Heptathela Kishida, 1923 and Ryuthela Haupt, 1983. In this paper, a taxonomic revision of the genus Heptathela (Heptathelinae) from Kyushu and Ryukyu archipelago, Japan is provided. This study follows a multi-tier species delimitation strategy within an integrative taxonomic framework that is presented in a parallel paper, in which diagnosable lineages are considered as valid species. There, the initial hypothesis of species diversity (19) based on classical morphological diagnoses is tested with multiple species delimitation methods aimed at resolving conflict in data. This revision follows those analyses that converge on the species diversity of 20, which includes a pair of cryptic species that would have been undetected with morphology alone. After this revision, eight previously described species remain valid, two junior synonyms are proposed, and 12 new Heptathela species are described based on diagnostic evidence. To ease identification and to hint at putative evolutionary units, Heptathela is divided into three groups. The Kyushu group contains H. higoensis Haupt, 1983, H. kikuyai Ono, 1998, H. kimurai (Kishida, 1920), and H. yakushimaensis Ono, 1998; the Amami group contains H. amamiensis Haupt, 1983, H. kanenoi Ono, 1996, H. kojima sp. nov., H. sumiyo sp. nov., and H. uken sp. nov.; and the Okinawa group contains H. yanbaruensis Haupt, 1983, H. aha sp. nov., H. gayozan sp. nov., H. kubayama sp. nov., H. mae sp. nov., H. otoha sp. nov., H. shuri sp. nov., H. tokashiki sp. nov., H. unten sp. nov., and H. crypta sp. nov. Heptathela helios Tanikawa & Miyashita, 2014 is not assigned to a species group. A combination of diagnostic tools augments the morphological diagnoses that, in isolation, would be prone to error in morphologically challenging groups of organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Islands harbour a spectacular diversity and unique species composition. This uniqueness is mainly a result of endemic species that have evolved in situ in the absence of mammal herbivores. However, island endemism is under severe threat by introduced herbivores. We test the assumption that endemic species are particularly vulnerable to generalist introduced herbivores (European rabbit) using an unprecedented dataset covering an entire island with enormous topographic, climatic and biological diversity (Tenerife, Canary Islands). With increasing endemism, plant species are more heavily browsed by rabbits than non-endemic species with up to 67% of endemics being negatively impacted by browsing, indicating a dramatic lack of adaptation to mammal herbivory in endemics. Ecosystems with high per cent endemism are most heavily browsed, suggesting ecosystem-specific vulnerability to introduced herbivores, even within islands. Protection of global biodiversity caused by disproportionally high endemism on oceanic islands via ecosystem-specific herbivore control and eradication measures is of utmost importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphological and molecular analyses of specimens representative of the geographic range of the cyprinid genus Amblypharyngodon in Sri Lanka suggest the presence of only a single species in the island, for which the name Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis Jordan & Starks, 1917, is available. Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis is a species endemic to Sri Lanka, distributed across the lowlands of both of the island's main climatic zones. It is distinguished from all other species of Amblypharyngodon, including the three species recorded from peninsular India (A. mola, A. microlepis, and A. melettinus), by a suite of characters that includes a body depth of 26.9-31.2% of the standard length (SL), 42-56 scales in the lateral series (of which usually 8-16 are pored), 20-24 circumpeduncular scales, 14-17 scale rows between the origins of the dorsal and pelvic fins, a dorsal-fin height of 21.1-27.6% SL, 18-19 caudal vertebrae and an eye diameter of 22.7-30.5% of the head length. Amblypharyngodon grandisquamis differs from A. melettinus and A. mola by uncorrected pairwise genetic distances of more than 9% and 6%, respectively, for the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The general dynamic model ( GDM) proposed by Whittaker et al. () has become a widely accepted theoretical framework in island biogeography. In this study, we explore whether GDM predictions hold when overall plant diversity is deconstructed into major plant families. Location 101 islands from 14 oceanic archipelagos world-wide. Methods Occurrence data for all species of nine large, cosmopolitan flowering plant families were used to test predictions derived from the GDM. We analysed the effects of island area and age on species richness as well as number and percentage of single-island endemic species per family using mixed-effect models. Results Total species and endemic richness as well as the percentage of endemic species showed the predicted hump-shaped relationship with island age. The overall pattern was mainly driven by few species-rich plant families. Varying patterns were found for individual families, some of them opposing the general trend. In most cases, native and endemic species richness peaked much earlier in the island life cycle than suggested by the GDM. The contribution of area to the explained variation of all dependent variables was much higher than that of island age. Main conclusions The results suggest that biodiversity-age relationships reported for large taxonomic groups like plants are driven by only a few species-rich clades. The way these families influence the overall patterns of species richness and endemism is related to family-specific properties, such as evolutionary history or dispersal strategies. Deviances from the GDM predictions can hence largely be explained by family characteristics and considering taxon-specific traits may help to further improve the explanatory power of the GDM. Families not following the expectations, like Orchidaceae, may be particularly valuable candidates to unveil so far neglected drivers of island biogeographical patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Our aim was to assess the evolutionary history of the land snail genus Xerocrassa on the Balearic Islands with a molecular phylogeny. We investigated how the main palaeogeographical events and climate changes which occurred in the Western Mediterranean basin influenced the current diversity and distribution of the genus within the archipelago. Location The Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean. Methods A dataset of 2540-bp DNA sequences was generated from one nuclear and two mitochondrial gene fragments obtained from 170 specimens representing 112 populations. Applying maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic methods and a Bayesian molecular clock, we examined the evolutionary history of the genus Xerocrassa. We also used genetic-based species delimitation models to clarify the taxonomy of the genus in the archipelago. Results We provide the first molecular phylogeny of the endemic Xerocrassa of the Balearic Islands. The monophyly of several currently recognized species was not supported. The genus colonized the archipelago in a single event during the Messinian salinity crisis (5.96-5.33 Ma) from the eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The hypothesis of a relatively recent origin for the evolutionary diversification within the group was supported by molecular clock analyses. Allopatric speciation occurred after the isolation of the Pityusic and Gymnesic island systems. Moreover, most of the extant species are the result of within-island speciation events. Main conclusions Historical biogeographical reconstruction strongly supports the hypothesis of Messinian salinity crisis as the colonization period of the Balearic Islands for Xerocrassa. Major climate changes experienced in the Western Mediterranean basin during the Plio-Pleistocene influenced the within-island speciation processes postulated for Xerocrassa. The high morphological diversity in the genus represents 11 species and a strong phylogeographical structure within the main islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Island endemic species have a much higher risk of extinction than those of mainland. The phoenix damselfly ( Pseudolestes mirabilis Kirby, 1900), the single representative of the family Pseudolestidae (Insecta: Odonata) which is endemic to Hainan Island, is facing a danger of extinction along with the acceleration of urbanization. To investigate population genetics and further evaluate the conservational importance, the mitochondrial gene COI of 126 individuals from 11 populations of the phoenix damselfly were sequenced and analyzed. This is the first comprehensive population ecological study for this species. The results recovered low genetic diversity and weak phylogeographic structure. Multiple lines of evidence including neutrality test, mismatch distribution analysis, phylogenetic topologies, and Bayesian skyline plot supported a population expansion just after the Last Glacial Maximum. Statistics of genetic diversity, gene flow, and potential habitats reconstruction suggested that the refugia constricted to the south central areas of the island. Meanwhile, the small population size and low genetic variation in some peripheral populations also implied a niche reduction. Increasing human activity and severe environment destruction may be the main reasons causing a recent decline of the population and increasing the risk of extinction. Therefore, urgent conservational efforts must be implemented to ensure the long-term survival of P. mirabilis. The present research has provided a way to prioritize and assess management strategies of this charismatic species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The Malvinas/Falkland Islands (MFI) constitute the largest archipelago in the southern Atlantic, and harbour endemic lineages that presumably evolved after sea-level rise, associated with glacial periods, isolated ancestral populations. We investigate the role of the MFI in isolating populations from continental counterparts of two highly vagile species: the sheldgeese Chloephaga picta and Chloephaga rubidiceps. Location: Patagonia and the Malvinas/Falkland Islands. Methods: We sampled C. picta and C. rubidiceps on the continent and MFI. Using a reduced-representation genomic approach, we quantified the genetic differentiation between insular and continental populations of both species, and used coalescent-based analyses to model their demography. Results: The MFI harbour independently evolving lineages of C. picta and C. rubidiceps, which diverged from their continental counterparts during the Middle-Late Pleistocene and have since experienced negligible gene flow. Main conclusions: The c. 450 km that separate the archipelago from the continent are sufficient to isolate populations of these putatively highly vagile species. Ancestral lineages may have reached the MFI refugium during glacial cycles. Without conservation measures, the drastic decline of the morphologically, behaviourally and ecologically distinct continental population of C. rubidiceps, to < 1000 individuals, may lead to the extinction of an independently evolving taxon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing population density is crucial for studying the ecology and evolutionary biology of species as well as for conservation purposes. Here we used point count methods to infer population density in a single-island endemic passerine bird, the Réunion Grey White-eyeZosterops borbonicus, that displays striking evidence of differentiation at a small spatial scale. Population density was estimated at 5.17 birds ha−1(CL 4.85–5.50), a value somewhat higher than previously believed. This estimation provides the first detailed estimation of bird population density in the vulnerable summit ecosystems of Réunion and will possibly allow a better understanding of the evolutionary causes of this plumage colour variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We infer the evolutionary history of the land snail genus Allognathus from a molecular phylogeny. An approximate temporal framework for its colonization of the Balearic Islands and diversification within the archipelago is provided according to palaeogeographical events in the western Mediterranean Basin. Location The Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean. Methods A 2461-bp DNA sequence dataset was generated from one nuclear and two mitochondrial gene fragments in 87 specimens, covering all nominal taxa of the genus Allognathus. Through maximum-likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic methods along with a Bayesian molecular clock, we examined the evolutionary history of the group. Ancestral distribution ranges were estimated for divergence events across the tree using a Bayesian approach. We also used genetic species-delimitation models to determine the taxonomy of Allognathus. Results We provided the first molecular phylogeny of Allognathus, a genus endemic to the Balearic Islands. The origin of the genus in the Balearic Islands was dated to the middle Miocene based on palaeogeographical events in the Western Mediterranean. During the late Miocene and Pliocene, several diversification events occurred within the archipelago. The ancestral range of Allognathus was reconstructed as the north-eastern Tramuntana Mountains of Mallorca. Main conclusions Three species were delimited within the genus, one of which has at least five subspecies. The phylogenetic reconstruction showed a high degree of parallelism between the divergence of the main Allognathus lineages and the palaeogeography of the Balearic Islands. The genus appears to have colonized Mallorca from the south-east of the Iberian Peninsula during the middle Miocene. Sea level fluctuations that took place in the Western Mediterranean from the Messinian to the present are consistent with the diversification and secondary contacts of the phylogroups of Allognathus, as well as their distribution ranges. The middle Miocene could have been a period for the colonization of the Balearic Islands by other terrestrial organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We analyse the taxonomic status, phylogenetic relationships, distribution and age of a newly discovered ant taxon found in the mountaintops of the island of Mallorca (Spain). We also consider the potential impact of short-term climate change on the survival of this ant and make proposals on its conservation status, risks and management. Location Balearic Islands (Spain). Methods We used morphological, molecular and ecological evidence to assess the specific status of the potential new species. We gathered distribution data to conduct climate-based distribution modelling of present and future occupancy under several SRES emission scenarios. Results The existence of a new non-cryptic species of ant (Lasius balearicus Talavera, Espadaler & Vila, sp. nov.) is described from the island of Mallorca. Its distribution was found to be extremely restricted (Serra de Tramuntana) and elevationally constrained to island summits (between 800 and 1400 m a.s.l.). Molecular dating indicated that this species diverged about 1.51 million years ago from its nearest relatives, from which it can be distinguished based on several morphological traits. Ecological niche modelling shows a dramatic reduction of areas with suitable climatic conditions under the different scenarios studied. Main conclusions Lasius balearicus represents the first endemic ant to be described in the Balearic Islands, as well as the first endemic Lasius species in the Mediterranean islands. Distribution modelling predictions, the low intraspecific genetic diversity observed, and the geographical and elevational isolation of the populations indicated a low probability for the survival of the species in the short term, thus making it a potential model to study real-time climate-based biodiversity loss. As a consequence, we strongly recommend including L. balearicus in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species under the category 'Endangered'. This case illustrates that a fraction of biodiversity remains unexplored even within Europe, arguably the best-studied region of the planet, and that the available time-window for us to study and protect it may be in some instances notably narrow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. The large flightless grasshopper Acrostira bellamyi Uvarov, endemic to the island of La Gomera ( Canary Islands), inhabits two different environments: the xeric euphorb shrubland, as is typical for congeneric Canarian species, and the humid laurel forest, a novel habitat for the genus. 2. We investigate genetic, morphological, and ecological variation among individuals of A. bellamyi from the two habitats. DNA sequence data were used to evaluate whether grasshoppers from the two environments represent distinct lineages. Morphological and trophic analyses were performed to assess phenotypic differentiation between the two different habitats. 3. Population genetic analyses support the hypothesis that the euphorb shrubland is the ancestral habitat for this species. Female laurel forest specimens are larger than those inhabiting the euphorb shrubland, and some external body parts exhibit significant morphometric differences between the two populations. Diet of shrubland individuals is completely different from that of laurel forest individuals. Although in each habitat they consume the most abundant plants, individuals are able to select food plants, which appear to be explained by their nutrient content. 4. Our results suggest that A. bellamyi has colonised laurel forest from shrubland, and that this habitat shift has resulted in genetic, morphological, and ecological changes, perhaps as an adaptation to this new habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We examined data for ermine ( Mustela erminea) to test two sets of diversification hypotheses concerning the number and location of late Pleistocene refugia, the timing and mode of diversification, and the evolutionary influence of insularization. Location Temperate and sub- Arctic Northern Hemisphere. Methods We used up to two mitochondrial and four nuclear loci from 237 specimens for statistical phylogeographical and demographic analyses. Coalescent species-tree estimation used a Bayesian approach for clade divergence based on external mutation rate calibrations. Approximate Bayesian methods were used to assess population size, timing of divergence and gene flow. Results Limited structure coupled with evidence of population growth across broad regions, including previously ice-covered areas, indicated expansion from multiple centres of differentiation, but high endemism along the North Pacific coast ( NPC). A bifurcating model of diversification with recent growth spanning three glacial cycles best explained the empirical data. Main conclusions A newly identified clade in North America indicated a fourth refugial area for ermine. The shallow coalescence of all extant ermine reflects a recent history of diversification overlying a deeper fossil record. Post-glacial colonization has led to potential contact zones for multiple lineages in north-western North America. A model of diversification of ermine accompanied by recent gene flow was marginally less well supported than a model of divergence of major clades in response to the most recent glacial cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The origins of islands influence island colonization and radiation dynamics, thus exerting differential selection pressures on the species that inhabit them. The occurrence of lower numbers of predator and competitor species on islands than the mainland selects for 'slow' life-history attributes (the 'island syndrome'). Animals colonizing, and radiating on, oceanic islands probably face more novel environments than do those inhabiting continental fragment and land-bridge islands. We hypothesized that oceanic island endemics will show the slowest life histories, whereas land-bridge island species will resemble mainland species the most. We predicted that species on old, small and isolated islands will also have slow life histories. Location World-wide. Methods We assembled life-history data for 540 mainland and 319 insular endemic lizard species. We tested whether clutch size, brood frequency, hatchling mass and productivity differed between islands of different origin and between islands and the mainland. We controlled for female size, for latitude and for phylogenetic relationship using the R package caper. In addition, we tested the influences of island age, area and isolation on species life histories. Results Oceanic island endemics have the smallest clutches and the largest offspring, and, together with continental fragment island endemics, lay most frequently. Clutch size, brood frequency and productivity increase with increasing island age. Isolation and area have little effect on lizard life history. Main conclusions Our findings support the proposition that selection pressure differs across island type. The predator-poor environments on oceanic islands select for few, large offspring, while the predator-rich environments of the mainland and land-bridge islands select for many, small offspring. Island geological origin creates the environment within which evolution takes place, and thus plays a major role in life-history evolution. As islands grow older, lizards adapt by increasing their yearly reproductive effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One new species of Dicarnosis Mercet, Dicarnosis lisenchiae sp. n. (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) is described from Cyprus. It is interpreted as a 'missing link' between the distinctive Asiatic species Dicarnosis sugonjaevi Myartseva and the other Palaearctic species of the genus. The habitat of D. lisenchiae sp. n., i.e. the high altitudes of Troodos Mountains, suggests that it could be an endemic relict species from a cooler period in the history of the island. (© 2012 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bursts of speciation have followed colonization of remote oceanic islands by diverse taxa, a process evidenced by island endemics around the world. The present study explores whether the Malvinas - Falkland Islands (MFI), a relatively understudied archipelago off the South Atlantic coast of Patagonia, harbour endemic genetic lineages of passerine birds. Nine passerine species nest regularly in the MFI ( Cinclodes antarcticus, Muscisaxicola maclovianus, Troglodytes cobbi, Cistothorus platensis, Turdus falcklandii, Anthus correndera, Melanodera melanodera, Sturnella loyca, and Carduelis barbata). Mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome c oxidase I sequences) are used to quantify and compare divergence between insular and continental populations, finding genetic patterns to vary across these nine species. Most MFI passerines do not show significant genetic differentiation from continental populations, whereas C. platensis, M. melanodera, and T. falcklandii are modestly diverged. Finally, T. cobbi differes markedly from its closest continental relative Troglodytes aedon, a result that is confirmed using nuclear and vocal data. The study also identifies broadly divergent lineages within continental populations of C. platensis and T. aedon. Taken together, these results suggest that the land bird populations of the MFI were established at different times. Troglodytes cobbi is the oldest MFI land bird, splitting from continental T. aedon during the Great Patagonian Glaciation of the Pleistocene. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ••, ••-••. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptive radiation is the rapid diversification of a single lineage into many species that inhabit a variety of environments or use a variety of resources and differ in traits required to exploit these. Why some lineages undergo adaptive radiation is not well-understood, but filling unoccupied ecological space appears to be a common feature. We construct a complete, dated, species-level phylogeny of the endemic Vangidae of Madagascar. This passerine bird radiation represents a classic, but poorly known, avian adaptive radiation. Our results reveal an initial rapid increase in evolutionary lineages and diversification in morphospace after colonizing Madagascar in the late Oligocene some 25 Mya. A subsequent key innovation involving unique bill morphology was associated with a second increase in diversification rates about 10 Mya. The volume of morphospace occupied by contemporary Madagascan vangas is in many aspects as large (shape variation)-or even larger (size variation)-as that of other better-known avian adaptive radiations, including the much younger Galapagos Darwin's finches and Hawaiian honeycreepers. Morphological space bears a close relationship to diet substrate use, and foraging movements, and thus our results demonstrate the great extent of the evolutionary diversification of the Madagascan vangas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a thorough review of the literature as well as floristic surveys undertaken over 20 years, a checklist of the bryophytes of Corsica, a mountainous western Mediterranean island, is presented. The occurrence of 17 liverwort and 44 moss species is documented for the first time from Corsica. As a result, the Corsican bryoflora includes 540 species: 148 liverworts, three hornworts and 389 mosses. Among the species reported, seven liverwort and 17 moss species are red-listed in Europe. By contrast with angiosperms, no bryophyte is endemic to the island based on traditional, phenetic species concepts. The number of new species reported here indicates that Corsica is exceedingly under-recorded bryologically. A better knowledge of the distribution, frequency and ecology of bryophyte species on the island is thus an absolute prerequisite in order to propose appropriate conservation measures in this Mediterranean environment that is, at least locally, severely threatened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes five new species of Gonolobus (Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae) from the Lesser Antilles. These are: G. dussii, G. absalonensis, G. waitukubiliensis, G. iyanolensis and G. youroumaynensis. The species demonstrated distinct differences in floral features, including the structure of gynostegial coronas and corolline.

Molecular sequences rarely evolve at a constant rate. Yet, even in instances where a clock can be assumed or approximated for a particular set of sequences, fossils or clear patterns of vicariance are rarely available to calibrate the clock. Thus, obtaining absolute timing for diversification of natural lineages can prove difficult. Unfortunately, without absolute time we cannot develop a complete understanding of important evolutionary processes, including adaptive radiations and key innovations. In the present study, the coding sequence of the nuclear gene, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gpd), extracted from the paleotropical moss, Mitthyridium, was found to exhibit clocklike behavior and used to reconstruct the history of 80 distinct molecular lineages that cover the full geographic range of Mitthyridium. Two separate clades endemic to two geographically distinct oceanic archipelagos were revealed by this phylogenetic analysis. This allowed the use of island age (as derived from potassium-argon dating) as a maximum age of origin of each monophyletic group, providing two independent time anchors for the clock found in gpd, the final piece needed to study absolute time. Based on results from both maximum age calibrations, which separately yielded highly consistent estimates, the ancestor of this moss group arose approximately 8 million years ago, and then diversified at the rapid rate of 0.56 ± 0.004 new lineages per million years. Such a rate is on par with the highest diversification rates reported in the literature including rapidly radiating insular groups like the Hawaiian silversword alliance, a classic example of an adaptive radiation. Using independent sources of data, it was found that neither the age nor diversification estimates were affected by the use of molecular lineages rather than species as the operational taxonomic units. Identifying the cause for this rapid diversification requires further testing, but it appears to be related to a general shift in reproductive strategy from sexual to asexual, which may be a key innovation for this young group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of island endemism provide a unique opportunity to elucidate fundamental mechanisms of speciation. Here we examine intra- and interspecific DNA sequence variation at four unlinked genetic loci among populations of the Drosophila dunni subgroup to provide a detailed genealogical portrait of the process of speciation among these island endemic species. Our data indicate two major rounds of diversification that have shaped the D. dunni subgroup. The first occurred 1.6-2.6 million years ago and separated three major lineages, one in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, a second in the northern Lesser Antilles and Barbados, and a third in St. Vincent and Grenada. A second round of diversification occurred in the last 96,000 years in the northern Lesser Antilles and Barbados. The four distinct species that resulted from this recent round of diversification maintain relatively high amounts of genetic variation, similar to that of a closely related mainland species, and share extensive ancestral polymorphism. These data suggest a minimal role for population bottlenecks linked to founder events in the history of the D. dunni subgroup. Further, the recent divergence of these island populations highlights the extremely rapid development of reproductive isolation and distinct patterns of abdominal pigmentation that has occurred in these species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measurements on rates of metabolism and temperature regulation are presented from nine populations of seven species of ducks resident in New Zealand. An analysis of these data and those from 18 additional species obtained from the literature indicates that basal rate of metabolism in anatids correlates with body mass and restriction to the Australian–New Zealand region: these ‘southern’ species have basal rates that average 70% of those from the Northern Hemisphere. The low basal rates of southern anatids may reflect reduced pectoral muscle masses in association with the absence of migratory habits and/or life on land masses without eutherian predators. New Zealand flightless teal (Anas aucklandica nesiotis, Anas aucklandica aucklandica) do not have mass-independent basal rates that differ from those found in flighted ducks living in the same region, although flightless teal have lower total basal rates than most ducks as a result of small masses. Minimal thermal conductance in this sample is determined by body mass alone. Regulated body temperature is negatively correlated with body mass. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ochlerotatus eatoni (Edwards, 1916) is a species endemic to Canary and Madeira Islands that, based on morphology, is considered to be single species. Mitochondrial 16S rRNA and cytochrome oxidase I (COI) sequence data demonstrate that the populations from Tenerife and Madeira Islands are highly differentiated (F(ST) = 0.93). The phylogenetic analysis also separates the two populations into two highly distinct groups. The sharp mitochondrial genetic differentiation between islands is congruent with the published nuclear (allozyme) data. However, mtDNA data did not reveal any significant genetic differentiation within islands. Extreme interisland genetic divergence, but lack of morphological variation, is indicative of the existence of cryptic species. I suggest the elevation of populations to at least incipient species status, designating the populations from Tenerife and Madeira Islands as Oc. eatoni. hewitti and Oc. eatoni. krimbasi, respectively., (© The Authors 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)