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The 'Aarhus Convention' – regulating access to environmental information, public participation and justice in environmental decision−making – is a key international agreement with a long history and a considerable number of signatory countries. While implementation has been studied nationally, there is little comparative research at the transnational level. Based on ten criteria, we analysed national implementation reports of the 2014, 2017 and 2021 reporting cycles in terms of how 33 countries in Europe have implemented the access to information and public participation pillars, and identified obstacles they encountered. We also studied similarities and differences supra-nationally. Overall, countries are quite successfully fulfilling the obligations of the two pillars. Most obstacles reported concern four criteria: access to information, information provision, interaction, and trust. Implementation practices have changed little from 2014 to 2021. However, East- and South-European countries report more, and more persistent or repetitive obstacles, compared to Northern and Western European countries. The national democratic context seems to affect the quality of implementation. The Convention's compliance bodies and national agencies responsible for coordinating the implementation are encouraged to interact more closely, to account for the differences and leverage implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Do informal international agreements without coercive mechanisms affect states' behavior? While scholars have long been interested in this question, answering it often poses empirical challenges, particularly in the arena of international security. By asking and answering a narrower question—Is NATO's Wales Pledge on defense spending working?—I can empirically test the extent to which states have adhered to a public agreement without formal or coercive enforcement mechanisms. I argue that the Wales Pledge has led to higher spending because NATO the organization uniquely enables allies to influence one another's defense planning, publicly and privately. I find support for this argument by interrogating disaggregated defense expenditures of NATO and EU members, and by comparing NATO allies Denmark and Norway with non-allies Finland and Sweden. Although the Wales Pledge has been maligned, it served its purpose by encouraging allies to spend more on defense, particularly on equipment modernization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Environmental & Social Management Journal / Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental is the property of Environmental & Social Management Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The activity of maritime rescue often comes under political scrutiny from far-right platforms, especially when migratory phenomena intensify, questioning its work because the people being rescued are migrants trying to reach European shores irregularly. However, maritime rescue, which is governed by international maritime law, has a moral and legal imperative: when people are at risk at sea, saving lives takes precedence over any other consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Russian military invasion has caused a collapse in food supplies from Ukraine to world markets. The transformation of Ukrainian export logistics has been carried out under critical conditions and extremely limited deadlines. This article evaluated the transformations in logistics in the grain and oilseeds markets due to the war, discussed the impact of international agreements on export and logistics supply chains, and proposed marketing strategies for the trade of grain, oilseeds, and related products during wartime. The authors employed various general scientific and special methods and approaches, including a systematic approach, abstract-logical and graphic methods, retrospective and comparative analysis, correlation-regression analysis, and forecasting methods. A periodisation of the export logistical transformation due to the war was used. It included the following stages: the collapse of logistics; the growth of exports due to the impact of international agreements; and the operation of an alternative Ukrainian maritime corridor with the support of international partners. The significant impact of production and sales transformations caused by the war on the growth of wheat export logistics costs for various supply bases was demonstrated. The authors concluded that the export logistics risks were primarily mitigated by low grain and oilseed prices for agricultural producers. An assessment of the grain, oil crops, and processing products export market in Ukraine was also provided. The development of effective marketing strategies was highlighted. The practical value of the study lies in the use of the research results for developing marketing strategies for enterprises and European cooperation development projects in the agrarian sector

The issue of providing legal protection to minorities and enabling them to exercise their human rights remains one of the most important issues for research and study, especially since the most countries in the world today are multi-ethnic and nationalities, which include various minorities: religious, linguistic, racial, Distinguishing them from problems that are not only of interest to States but also of the international community as a whole, especially in their international, global and regional organizations.

Objective: to demonstrate the complex legal landscape which is being changed under the influence of the modern digital landscape developing with the integration of cryptographic technologies into international trade and especially into the field of information and communication technology products.Methods: the study of the documents is built primarily on a set of ways of interpreting legal acts, which allows analyzing the content of primary legal sources, namely the provisions for cryptographic products circulation, and proposing solutions to fill the gaps in this area. Also, secondary sources were collected and summarized to form an idea of the study subject.Results: areas of uncertainty in the protection of digital cryptographic products under the WTO agreements have been identified, raising questions about the adequacy of existing protection measures. It is noted that in some countries this situation has led to restrictions or bans on the import and export of cryptographic technologies and encrypted data on security grounds. The authors pay attention to the concept of non-discriminatory treatment of cryptographic products, which is being developed primarily within the framework of regional trade agreements to address the shortcomings of WTO agreements. It is emphasized that regional trade agreements, although stimulating cooperation and competition in international trade, demonstrate various approaches to the regulation of cryptographic products. The authors note that this creates challenges for business and it must be prepared to take into account the specificities of regional agreements, local legislation and evolving legal requirements. A conclusion is made that it is important to balance the innovation protection with the promotion of trust and cooperation, between the cryptographic technologies development and the issues of security and intellectual property rights protection.Scientific novelty: a vision of the complex legal landscape surrounding cryptographic products is presented, showing the differences in approaches to regulating relations around digital and non-digital products under WTO agreements and approaches to regulating cryptographic products applied in regional trade agreements.Practical significance: the study results are of interest to government agencies, policy makers, commercial entities and individuals involved in international trade in cryptographic technologies, as they can help all stakeholders to make informed decisions, navigate the complexities of regulating these relationships and advocate for fair treatment in the evolving digital trade environment.

The article is devoted to highlighting the features of the normative and legal regulation of the international activities of the Ministry of Youth and Sports of Ukraine. The content of the concepts of «legal regulation» and «normative and legal regulation» is clarified, taking into account existing scientific approaches to their understanding. It is determined that normative and legal regulation is a part of legal regulation and focuses on influence through normative legal acts, whereas legal regulation includes a broader spectrum of tools and mechanisms of legal influence. It is concluded that normative and legal regulation is carried out exclusively through legal norms, the external expression of which is the sources of normative and legal regulation. The author analyzes the normative and legal framework that regulates international cooperation in the field of youth and sports, including the laws of Ukraine, decrees of the President of Ukraine, resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers, as well as international agreements ratified by Ukraine. Special attention is paid to the mechanisms of implementation of international standards into national legislation, as well as the role of the Ministry of Youth and Sports in the formation and implementation of state policy in the relevant field. The main problems and challenges faced by the Ministry in the context of ensuring effective legal regulation of international activities are identified, and recommendations are provided for improving the normative and legal framework. Improvement of the legal framework and active participation in international projects will help Ukraine to achieve high standards in these fields. As a result of the study, the author concludes that cooperation between the Ministry of Youth and Sports of Ukraine and other state and non-state institutions involved in international activities is a prerequisite for the successful development of youth policy and sports in Ukraine. Improving the legal and regulatory framework for the international activities of the Ministry of Youth and Sports of Ukraine is a prerequisite for increasing the efficiency of its work, improving international cooperation and integrating Ukraine into the global sports movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Russian military invasion has caused a collapse in food supplies from Ukraine to world markets. The transformation of Ukrainian export logistics has been carried out under critical conditions and extremely limited deadlines. This article evaluated the transformations in logistics in the grain and oilseeds markets due to the war, discussed the impact of international agreements on export and logistics supply chains, and proposed marketing strategies for the trade of grain, oilseeds, and related products during wartime. The authors employed various general scientific and special methods and approaches, including a systematic approach, abstract-logical and graphic methods, retrospective and comparative analysis, correlation-regression analysis, and forecasting methods. A periodisation of the export logistical transformation due to the war was used. It included the following stages: the collapse of logistics; the growth of exports due to the impact of international agreements; and the operation of an alternative Ukrainian maritime corridor with the support of international partners. The significant impact of production and sales transformations caused by the war on the growth of wheat export logistics costs for various supply bases was demonstrated. The authors concluded that the export logistics risks were primarily mitigated by low grain and oilseed prices for agricultural producers. An assessment of the grain, oil crops, and processing products export market in Ukraine was also provided. The development of effective marketing strategies was highlighted. The practical value of the study lies in the use of the research results for developing marketing strategies for enterprises and European cooperation development projects in the agrarian sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Al-Adab / Al-ādāb is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Arab Journal for Scientific Publishing is the property of Research & Development of Human Recourses Center (REMAH) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Muslims in Spain have suffered from persecution for centuries, but political and cultural transformations have led to religious freedom. Laws and agreements such as the Associations Act of 1964, the Freedom of Belief Act of 1967, and the Constitution of 1978 recognized freedom of belief and organized freedom of worship, considering Islam as part of Spain's cultural identity.Many Islamic associations were established, facing challenges such as fragmentation and difficulty in obtaining funding, while achieving accomplishments like building mosques and spreading Islam.The 1992 agreement between the Spanish Islamic Commission and the Spanish state recognized the rights of Muslims, including the organization of associations, management of mosques, Islamic marriage, religious education, and religious care. Despite ongoing challenges such as Islamophobia and discrimination, Muslims in Spain enjoy much greater religious freedom than in the past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author systematically studied the essence of the contracts between Uzbekistan and Türkiye and the specific features of the contracts, scientifically and theoretically substantiated. The legal nature of international agreements and scientific approaches to them are studied. The international agreements between the Republics of Uzbekistan and Türkiye were analyzed using special, logical, political, theological, systematic, normative interpretation methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Only one of Europe's micro-states is a republic: the Republic of San Marino. This non-EU Member State is an enclave of Italy and sits in a mountainous region of the Apennine Mountains. Given its proximity to the EU, being fully surrounded by it, and the extent to which integration through law has occurred within the EU, the law and policy of EU external relations demands that EU-San Marino relations must exist in some way. Yet the EU's legal relations with third states in Europe have evolved along different trajectories, accounting for the individuality and uniqueness of each. As uncovered in this article, the EU-Sammarinese relationship stretches across a limited array of international agreements, with their own specific width and depth. Taken together, this mishmash of accords, and the way in which regulatory alignment is designed by them, portrays an outdated model of relations that need an update. With an envisaged association agreement between the EU and San Marino on the horizon, this article analyses the legal relations of the parties as they presently stand, accounting for their history, the substance of the international agreements, and the promise of what future legal relations ought to achieve between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Legal & Economic Research / Mağallaẗ Al-Buḥūṯ Al-Qānūniyyaẗ wa Al-Iqtiṣādiyyaẗ is the property of Beni Suef University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Bulletin of Ablai Khan KazUIRandWL: Series 'International Relations & Regional Studies' is the property of Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations & World Languages and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The presented article examines the Hague Conference on Private International Law and the instruments adopted under its auspices, with a particular emphasis on their application within the European Union context. Within the scope of the European Union's competence in judicial cooperation in civil and commercial matters, several regulations have been adopted at the Union level, forming a comprehensive framework of Union private international law and procedural law. The Union itself and its Member States are members of the Hague Conference. In situations where both an EU regulation and a Hague convention apply concurrently, it is essential to thoroughly understand the effects of these provisions, their interrelationship, and the resolution of the resulting normative pluralism. The aim of this article is to examine the effects of the Hague conventions within EU law and to analyse how the interrelationships between these legal sources are managed for the practical application of rules in the resolution of disputes involving a foreign element. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(Series Information) European Papers - A Journal on Law and Integration, 2024 9(1), 145-152 | European Forum Insight of 25 June 2024 | (Table of Contents) I. Introduction. - II. The signature of international agreements into EU law and the emergence of a practice. - III. Breaking a taboo. - IV. Conclusion. | (Abstract) The European Union has always concluded international agreements with third countries and international organisations as an integral component of its external action. In contrast to its predecessors, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced a uniform procedural framework for the negotiation and conclusion of international agreements in art. 218 TFEU with the aim of simplification and coherence between all EU external policies, including the CFSP. However, the act of signing international agreements has remained a grey area, shared between the Commission and the Council as a result of a well-established practice within EU institutional governance. On 9 April 2024, the European Court of Justice brought the Council back to a literal interpretation of the EU Treaties, removing any doubt about the role of the Commission in representing the EU externally and crystallising the legal authority of the sole Commission to sign agreements on behalf of the EU.

Introduction/purpose: The paper provides an overview of international regimes and agreements that aimed to halt the spread of nuclear weapons. For each regime, its impact on nuclear weapons proliferation is presented, as well as its significance in stopping nuclear tests that posed a threat of a global ecological catastrophe. Many of these regimes are no longer in effect today, but throughout history, they played their role in fulfilling specific needs to halt the global spread of nuclear weapons or characteristic nuclear weapons of a certain range. Methods: The paper analyses the international agreements in this field, as well as the papers in the field of nuclear safety from journals of international importance. Results: The analysis of nuclear security regimes gave results that speak of their strengths and weaknesses. The importance and weaknesses of the regimes are given through the analysis and several diagrams that show the trend of increasing the amount of nuclear weapons over time. Conclusions: The work points to the historical importance of nuclear security regimes, but also to their weaknesses, both in earlier times and today. It is clear that these regimes halted nuclear weapons, but this halt did not lead to the complete abolition of nuclear weapons, which is the ultimate goal of the agreements.

Copyright of Arab Journal for Scientific Publishing is the property of Research & Development of Human Recourses Center (REMAH) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper analyzes the welfare impact of expanding the negotiation agenda of an international agreement between asymmetric countries (e.g., including specific negotiations over environmental regulations or labor standards in a conventional trade agreement) and demonstrates why such proposed expansions are contentious. A main result is that agenda expansions that provide more bargaining flexibility will increase the efficiency of the agreement but can result in a less equitable agreement that hurts the country that is at a bargaining disadvantage. Similarly, we demonstrate that decreases in bargaining game asymmetry can also make the disadvantaged country worse‐off even as it increases global welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction/purpose: The paper provides an overview of international regimes and agreements that aimed to halt the spread of nuclear weapons. For each regime, its impact on nuclear weapons proliferation is presented, as well as its significance in stopping nuclear tests that posed a threat of a global ecological catastrophe. Many of these regimes are no longer in effect today, but throughout history, they played their role in fulfilling specific needs to halt the global spread of nuclear weapons or characteristic nuclear weapons of a certain range. Methods: The paper analyses the international agreements in this field, as well as the papers in the field of nuclear safety from journals of international importance. Results: The analysis of nuclear security regimes gave results that speak of their strengths and weaknesses. The importance and weaknesses of the regimes are given through the analysis and several diagrams that show the trend of increasing the amount of nuclear weapons over time. Conclusions: The work points to the historical importance of nuclear security regimes, but also to their weaknesses, both in earlier times and today. It is clear that these regimes halted nuclear weapons, but this halt did not lead to the complete abolition of nuclear weapons, which is the ultimate goal of the agreements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Al-Mishkat for Humanities & Social Studies / Al-Mis̆kāt li-l-ʿUlūm al-Insāniyyaẗ wa-al-IğtimāʿIyyaẗ is the property of World Islamic Sciences & Education University (WISE) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

International protection from climate change was studied in two chapters. The first chapter dealt with the international concept of climate change. The second chapter dealt with international agreements concerned with climate change, including the Framework Convention on Climate, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Climate Agreement. The adequacy of international conferences and forums, especially the Framework Agreement, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement in dealing with climate changes and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions This study concluded that climate change is one of the most important challenges facing the entire world, and in the long run, it constitutes a problem and a threat to global peace and security. This problem has become very visible after the industrial revolution that occurred in the late twentieth century. This study recommended that the efforts of all countries should unite in order to work on changing some internal systems and legislations in order to be compatible with preserving the environment and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chadian-Sudanese relations are ancient relations. Sudan and Chad share common tribal and ethnic ties throughout the two countries, to the point that it is almost difficult to differentiate between who is Chadian and who is Sudanese, due to the similarity of features between the two peoples. Despite this, Chad's relations with Sudan have gone through many periods of tension and barrenness. It oscillated between the exchange of benefits, hostility and war, through harboring and supporting the opposing movements in each, in light of the absence of the strategic dimension of common interests between N'Djamena and Khartoum in many cases, and being affected by tribal issues and overlapping borders. The security of the borders between Chad and Sudan remains one of the most important and prominent concerns between the two countries. It is considered one of the most passionate issues in the region due to its connection to the political, economic and social conditions in the two countries. The subject of the research, which is entitled: Contemporary Chadian-Sudanese relations, refers to the problem raised by the research into these relations in the recent years that preceded the establishment of the joint forces. Conflicts and security chaos allowed arms smugglers to wreak havoc in that border region. Hence the idea of establishing joint security forces between the two countries. What is the impact of the agreements in securing the border between Chad and Sudan on the security situation? The study's approach is based on the analysis of these relationships as the result of a group of factors directly related to both parties on the one hand, and to the environment surrounding these relationships on the other hand. Moreover, the analysis used the historical method in the belief that it is impossible to understand contemporary relations separate from their historical roots. History is a continuous chain of links in which the results are interconnected with the premises in a way that helps understand the present and predict the future. The research also reached results, the most important of which are:  The study revealed that Chad is greatly affected by the political, economic, social, security and military conditions in Sudan and vice versa, by virtue of the geographical situation, the length of the common border, and the close connection between the tribes in the border areas.  The study also revealed that the influx of refugees led to the entry of large quantities of weapons, which were popular among the Sudanese tribes to acquire for the purpose of defending themselves or property, confronting armed insurgency, and the absence of a strategic dimension for the two countries with regard to common interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the single and the joint influence of environmental policy stringency and oil prices on green innovation, admitting the possibility of different magnitudes of the response of innovation depending upon whether oil prices are increasing or decreasing, and accounting for endogeneity of policies. A panel data set of OECD countries is used over the period 1990–2016. Results suggest that increasing the stringency of environmental regulation can, beyond inducing green innovation, shield the effect of oil prices on innovation. In addition, a more stringent environmental policy reduces the asymmetric response of innovation when oil price increases or decreases. Thus, environmental policy and oil prices can be complements when inducing green innovation. Exploiting these complementarities requires an interdependent use of environmental and energy policies, through dynamic adjustments of subsidies and taxes on oil prices alongside reasonable levels of stringency in environmental policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revue Electronique Internationale Pour la Publication de Recherches Juridiques is the property of Revue Electronique Internationale Pour la Publication de Recherches Juridiques and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revue Electronique Internationale Pour la Publication de Recherches Juridiques is the property of Revue Electronique Internationale Pour la Publication de Recherches Juridiques and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing (ABS) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a fundamental international agreement that plays a crucial role in the protection and equitable utilization of plant genetic resources. While this agreement is essential for conservation and sustainable use, it presents specific challenges to coffee research and industry. One major issue is the requirement to obtain prior informed consent (PIC) from the source country or community, which can be a complex and time-consuming process, especially in regions with limited governance capacity. Additionally, the mandates of this agreement necessitate benefit-sharing with the source community, a requirement that poses implementation challenges, particularly for small businesses or individual researchers. Despite these challenges, the importance of the Nagoya Protocol in the coffee sector cannot be overstated. It contributes significantly to the conservation of coffee genetic resources and the sustainable utilization of these resources, ensuring fair distribution of benefits. To address the complexities presented by this international framework, coffee researchers and industry need to engage proactively with source countries and communities. This includes developing clear and equitable benefit-sharing and implementing strategies for compliance. This article explores the impact of the Nagoya Protocol on the coffee industry, particularly emphasizing the need for balancing scientific investigation with the ethical considerations of resource sharing. It also discusses practical strategies for navigating the complexities of this agreement, including research focused on authenticity control and the challenges in conducting large-scale coffee studies. The conclusion underscores the potential for international collaboration, particularly through platforms like the International Coffee Organization (ICO), to harmonize research activities with the ethical imperatives of the Nagoya Protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Sportive is the property of Journal of Sportive and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The main purpose of this article is to analyse the Council’s practice of ‘common accord’ as the argument behind the tardiness of accession to the Istanbul Convention by the European Union. It presents how political and legal factors condition the accession of the Istanbul Convention by the European Union. In light of the Court of Justice Opinion 1/19, there are no legal obstacles to the accession; therefore, the tardiness of ratification arose from the political context, which consists of the EU’s constitutional crisis, populists in power, and liberal decision-makers succumbing to them. Based on the sociological assumption, the case study confirms the existence of the practice of ‘common accord’ as an effect of the conditions mentioned above. Nevertheless, the social need to access the Istanbul Convention is urgent.

Federal systems face specific challenges in fulfilling their international commitments. In cases of shared jurisdiction, the federal government needs the sub-federal level to contribute to the implementation process. Both Canada and the EU have used side-payments to bring and keep on board reluctant and opposing provinces and member states in the implementation of international agreements. However, both cases have experienced the limits of this strategy. This article aims to make a theoretical contribution by identifying the causal conditions and processes that help explain the success and failure of using side-payments to encourage sub-federal support for the implementation of an international agreement. Based on the study of the implementation of the Paris Agreement in Canada and the EU, I develop a two-fold argument. First, side-payments can be an effective tool to persuade sub-federal governments if they are generally interested in contributing to implementation. They do not work for governments of powerful entities that are unwilling to implement. Second, sub-federal governments react to other actors’ conduct. Side-payments can keep reluctant governments of weak entities on board only as long as no alliance of powerful sub-federal entities is formed that resists the implementation of an international agreement.

The aim of the paper is reviewing the key elements of the system of contemporary climate change politics and law, as a unique system made up of entities at different levels (from global, through regional to national). The introductory part of the paper highlights the global characteristics of climate change and provides methodological notes. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the consideration of the basic elements of global climate change policy and law in light of the need for a systemic approach to legal climate protection. The provisions of international treaties are analysed: the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Framework Convention), the Kyoto Protocol (KP), the Paris Climate Agreement (PA), and other relevant international treaties. The second part of the paper analyses the place that regional subjects have in global politics. An overview is also given of the way of implementing global international obligations through the national regulations of Serbia, Montenegro, and Croatia. The paper discusses the position that the legal system in the field of climate change is a unique system. The foundations of that system are defined by international treaties at the global level, and implementation is primarily ensured by the member states. The role of the ‘region’ and the possibility of regional connections are not clearly emphasized, except in the part that refers to ‘regional organizations of economic integration’. In the conclusion, it is stated that the question of the role of the ‘region’ should be regulated in more detail in the context of a systemic approach to international law.

Treaties, which over the last few decades have increased in number and scope, play a significant role in determining the content and reach of international law. It often falls to domestic courts to mediate the interface between international treaty law and domestic law and reconcile those laws by determining if and how treaties find application in the domestic sphere. In that context, this article provides an account of the evolving nature of South African courts' application of unincorporated treaties (those that have not been incorporated into domestic law by legislation) within the framework of the Constitution. The article begins by outlining the various ways in which treaties find application in South African law before providing a critical evaluation of the courts' approach to the application of unincorporated treaties. The Constitutional Court's jurisprudence has in successive cases evolved, if not always consistently, to recognise that unincorporated treaties do, in many circumstances, create domestically enforceable obligations for the government, given the integrative international law injunctions of the Constitution. Having considered the courts' evolving approach to the application of unincorporated treaties, the article argues that the courts need to adopt an approach to the application of unincorporated treaties that is guided by four principles anchored in the Constitution. The approach should be: holistic (having due regard to the whole Constitution); harmonising (ensuring that, where possible, domestic law and international law do not conflict); certain; and rigorous. Flowing from these four principles, the article makes certain proposals for charting the course ahead, so that South Africa, a country whose Constitution is often heralded as particularly friendly to international law, is not found, in practice, to be no more than a fair-weather friend of international law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of REMAH Journal is the property of Research & Development of Human Recourses Center (REMAH) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Correlation between import and export is essential for a country's economic development and stability. Adequate management of these processes can contribute to economic growth, resource diversification, strengthening international relations and improving the quality of life for citizens. The author intends to present in this article the evolution and particularities of import and export in the Republic of Moldova in the last 10 years. During this period our country faced several events, difficult economic periods, crises, situations of force majeure, etc. But by negotiating international agreements with the European Union, international organizations, other independent states, it was possible to register a positive evolution of exports and imports. As a result, the author proposes the correlation between import and export as an essential part for economic development and stability of the Republic of Moldova. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

States have known since ancient times the phenomenon of mercenaries in armed conflicts, and their use contradicts the principles that international humanitarian law seeks to achieve, which is the prohibition of violations during armed conflicts. International law has explicitly regulated mercenaries in successive periods of time, but this regulation has been characterized by ambiguity and confusion. It was not sufficient to eliminate and limit the phenomenon of mercenaryism, due to the many negatives that befell this organization, such as defining mercenaries and the conditions of their existence, or legalizing them, which makes violating the abovementioned principles open to these people and the countries that use them, as an alternative to their national armies. In order to tip the balance in victory, despite the bad image of mercenaries, it remains one of the complex issues for which no comprehensive solution has been provided through international agreements, whether at the level of international humanitarian law or within the scope of international criminal law. This study relied on the descriptive and analytical approach by collecting information and data and analyzing various legal texts to determine the legal status of mercenaries in public international law. This study aims to shed light on the legal status of mercenaries in public international law, and the most important international legal rules that determine this status, as it addressed the participation and actions carried out by mercenaries in international and non-international armed conflicts, and the most important aspects of the protection assigned to them in accordance with the relevant international agreements. According to international law, mercenaries are not considered lawful combatants, nor are they considered prisoners of war. Their actions violate the laws, are criminal, and require criminal accountability. Despite all this, the demand for the use of mercenaries in international conflicts or civil wars has increased. Recently, another image of mercenary activity has emerged, represented by private security and military companies, whose involvement in these activities has been proven in practice. Therefore, the international community must Establish an effective international system of monitoring and accountability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impacts of climate change extend to all countries and continents and have a cross-cutting effect on social, economic and ecological systems. Therefore, it is necessary to work together at the international level to effectively manage this problem. One effective method is to adopt a proper international legal framework. International legal regulation allows for the creation of common standards and rules that are followed by participating countries. The European Union is one of the most important actors in international cooperation on the environment and climate change. It has committed itself to achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and is taking a wide range of measures, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting renewable energy, and promoting green development. Moreover, the EU provides various instruments and financial support to implement climate change measures. In view of this, it is important to study climate change at the international level, including the role of the EU in this regard. The purpose of the article is to examine the important role of the European Union in environmental diplomacy and combating climate change through international law. The article examines how the EU is an active participant in shaping the international legal regime on climate change. In particular, it participates in negotiations, concludes international agreements, and actively implements and enforces the obligations agreed upon under such agreements, such as the Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International agreements on Intellectual Property (IP) have proven to be a good example to study global lawmaking. Beginning by looking at the 1990s Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement and into the negotiation and implementation of regional and national trade agreements, this article reflects on the intricate relationship between international IP agreements and public health. The comprehensive analysis of these international rules and their effect provides valuable insights into the dynamic interplay between domestic and international factors in shaping health policies. Building upon the IP case, we categorize existing scholarship on global lawmaking into three methodological approaches: (a) methodological internationalism, (b) methodological nationalism, and (c) the interplay between domestic and international factors. We close with a call for researchers to advocate and integrate into their methods a co-constitutive approach that considers the simultaneous shaping of domestic and international elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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