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We evaluated a method for marking arthropods that could serve as a valuable tool for mark‐release‐recapture dispersal research. The taggants tested consisted of three liquid fluorophores labeled cartax green, magenta, and orange. The manufacturer markets these fluorescent markers as forensic theft deterrents. Specimens of 16 genera of arthropods were externally marked with either one of the colored fluorophores or with water (negative control treatment). The specimens were then qualitatively and quantitatively inspected for fluorescence 24 h later. For the qualitative analysis, three independent observers scored each specimen by direct observation for the presence of a fluorescent mark. The specimens were scored using a portable ultraviolet (UV) tube lantern and a specialized NIGHTSEA‐brand LED UV light. The three fluorophores were readily detected on many but not all the species examined, regardless of the type of UV light used. Moreover, the NIGHTSEA LED light yielded fewer false‐negative observer errors than the lantern. Each specimen's fluorescence was measured with an automated dual‐wavelength microplate fluorometer for the quantitative analysis. Overall, the quantitative analysis was very reliable at detecting fluorescence on a few taxa [e.g., Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Chrysoperla spp. (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)], effective on most taxa, and unreliable on several others [e.g., Collops vittatus (Say) (Coleoptera: Melyridae), Geocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), Mecaphesa celer (Hentz) (Araneae: Thomisidae)]. The cartax green marker was more readily detected than the magenta and orange markers with both visual and automated detection. Overall, the results show that these fluorophores could be effective markers for many arthropod species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The La Guillerma archaeological locality is located in the northeast sector of Buenos Aires province (Argentina). Two of its sites (LG1 and LG5), dated between ca. 1400- and 600-years BP, have a great amount of faunal remains including deer, rodents, fish and small birds that are subjected to taphonomic agents and processes (e.g., weathering, manganese, roots). Previous studies have shown osteophagic behaviour in different insects (e.g., Coleoptera, Blattodea). In this paper, we evaluate their incidence on La Guillerma faunal assemblage. We performed an analysis on marks that were identified in bone remains of various taxa and applied the criteria for identifying bone alteration by insects (i.e., by measuring each trace and comparing them with the types of insect marks described in the literature). Fifteen specimens (LG1 = 6 and LG5 = 9) exhibited different types of modifications (e.g., pits with striae in base, pits with emanating striae, striations) that are related to the action of insects. Although the proportion of affected bones is low in relation to the total sample, we highlight our study as the first detailed analysis of insect marks on archaeological bones from Argentina. We also emphasize the significance of addressing insect-produced modifications on Argentinean archaeological sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), is mass produced worldwide for use in waste management and the production of an alternative protein for use as feed. However, few publications have explored its adult behavior, particularly mating, as a means to optimize egg production in colony. In addition, there is limited knowledge of appropriate marking techniques to explore the mating behavior of this insect. The goal of this study was to validate water-based acrylic paint pens as a possible marking tool for behavioral studies with adult black soldier flies. Adult black soldier flies (<24-h old) were marked with green, gold, red, or white acrylic paint. Adult longevity, as well as the number of matings (mating success) were recorded for each treatment. Regardless of marking, 1) adult females lived ~7 d, whereas males lived 9 d, 2) mating frequency peaked 2 d after initiation of the experiment, 3) approximately 30% of adults across treatments were recorded mating, and 4) egg production and hatch rate were not affected. This marking technique did not affect the parameters measured, suggesting that it is suitable for experiments requiring a reliable marking technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The marking of Drosophila suzukii can be an important instrument for studying the ecology and behaviour of this economically important fruit pest, aiding the development of new Integrated Pest Management (IPM) tools or strategies. There is, however, a need for a cost-effective methodology that provides an easily detectable and stable mark. Whereas fluorescent pigment powders are often used in entomological research, the pigments (series, dyes), application techniques, or doses need to be evaluated for each studied species in terms of their efficacy and possible adverse effects on the performance of the insect. The effectiveness of different application techniques and dyes (RadGlo® TP-series) and their effect on the survival of adult D. suzukii were investigated in the laboratory. Furthermore, the influence of the marking on the behaviour of the flies was examined in laboratory trap assays (olfaction) and a field recapture study (general orientation). The persistence and detectability of the marks was evaluated both on living flies (for different application techniques) and dead flies under trapping/storage conditions. The use of fluorescent powders to mark D. suzukii flies yielded a clearly detectable and highly persistent mark, without any adverse effects on the survival and behaviour of the flies.

The fall migration of Monarch butterflies ( Danaus plexippus) in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) was studied in an unfunded citizen science project during 2012-16 by tagging 13778 reared and 875 wild Monarchs. More than a third of these Monarchs were reared by inmates of the Washington State Penitentiary (WSP) in Walla Walla, Washington. Sixty (0.41 %) tagged Monarchs were recovered from distances greater than 10 km (mean: 792.9 ± 48.0 km) with most found in California, SSW of release points. One WSP-reared Monarch was found 724 km to the SE in Utah. Monarchs tagged in Oregon flew SSE to California. No Idaho-tagged Monarchs were found in California but two were recovered at locations due south. No wild tagged Monarchs from Washington, Oregon or Idaho were recovered. Monarchs from Washington and Oregon were found during October-February at 24 coastal California overwintering sites spanning 515 km from Bolinas to Carpinteria. A single wild spring Monarch tagged in May in northern California was recovered 35 days later and 707 km ENE in Twin Falls, Idaho. This study provides compelling evidence that many Monarchs in southern and central parts of Washington and Oregon migrate south in the fall to overwintering sites along the California coast. It also provides some evidence for southerly and south-easterly vectoring of migrating Monarchs from eastern Washington and Idaho, indicating the possibility of migration to Arizona or Mexico overwintering sites. In addition to improving our understanding of Monarch migration in the PNW, this study also contributed to conservation by adding nearly 14000 butterflies to the population. The incredible involvement of incarcerated and non-incarcerated citizen scientists generated much community and media interest which in turn led to greater involvement by citizens. Increased awareness of Monarchs, their biology and conservation in the PNW has been an unexpected but important spin-off of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the challenges associated with motion tracking of insects. The authors comment on the various methods of insect tracking, including studies of bees, ants, and spiders. They examine the development of tracking algorithms to detect insect movement, including methods such as optical flow, color matching, and template matching.

There is mounting evidence that non-crop vegetation can promote natural enemies of crop pests but most studies use only one or a few approaches to explore key processes. Here we integrate field sampling, insect marking, insecticide disruption, and molecular gut content analysis to explore the potential value of non-crop habitats to predators of brassica pests in temperate Australia. Twelve monthly surveys of 13 farms established that an exotic ladybird ( Hippodamia variegata ) and a native lacewing ( Micromus tasmaniae ) were numerically dominant predatory arthropod species in brassica crops and present in adjacent perennial pasture, bushland and riparian vegetation. We applied dye to non-crop vegetation on three sites and subsequently sampled predators from adjacent brassica crops. Relatively large proportions of H. variegata and M. tasmaniae were marked, especially close to the non-crop vegetation though also extending 100 m into the crop, indicating predator immigration into the crop. In a third study, predators were monitored in three brassica crops after the host farmers sprayed insecticide to control what they considered to be excessive pest densities. Within two days, H. variegata and M. tasmaniae adults were present in the crops and numbers increased significantly over 12 days showing rapid crop recolonisation. Finally, molecular gut analysis indicated large proportions of both predator species sampled from non-crop (non-brassica) vegetation contained DNA of brassica-specialist herbivores suggesting predator movement from crop to non-crop vegetation, possibly to access nectar. Findings demonstrate H. variegata and M. tasmaniae are likely to be important predators of brassica pests in the region and expand our understanding of the significance of non-crop vegetation for coccinellids and lacewings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the conservation status of protected species needs quantitative population data, generally obtained using Capture-Mark-Recapture methods ( CMR). The exploitation of natural marking (e.g. individual morphological traits) offers an interesting alternative, based on image analyses, which may result in a less manipulation of protected species compared to the typical artificial marking method., In our 2-year CMR study, we tested for the first time in the natural setting the feasibility and the application of the computer-aided photographic identification method of Rosalia alpina using the individual elytral spots as the natural marking. The I3 SC software was used for the photographic analysis., Data were collected from populations of two National Parks of central Italy during July-August in 2014 and 2015. We developed a standard procedure in order to optimise the image acquisition in the field and to acquire clear and comparable images, facilitating the I3 SC screening process., The results demonstrated that the computer-aided photographic identification of natural markings can be implemented in a CMR population study of R. alpina. Our image processing approach showed that using only the elytral central spot contours made the tracing contour process less time-consuming obtaining reliable results. Furthermore, I3 SC output scores were used to identify a threshold value for the identification of new individuals or recaptures, facilitating the final identification proposed by operators., Finally, we assessed the possibility of performing the methodology using a Citizen Science approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological control of insect pests relies on the ability of natural enemies to limit pest populations. The behaviours expressed by natural enemies against their prey or hosts are modulated by a number of factors and a better understanding of these factors is key to obtaining more efficacious pest control. We propose here that optimality models based upon a behavioural ecology approach can provide a framework that should enable optimisation of biological control practices. We limit our discussion to parasitoid natural enemies and review the factors known to influence the behaviour of these insects. The most important areas that have been studied extensively in the behavioural ecology of insect parasitoids are addressed here: (1) residence time in a host patch, (2) clutch size, (3) sex ratio, (4) host and patch marking, and (5) diet choice. We discuss the implications of the incorporation of these optimality models into efficacious biological control practices and suggest areas where a better knowledge of the behavioural ecology of these insects could improve the efficacy of parasitoid-based pest control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgound: Saucrosmylids are characterized by the typically large body size, complicated venation and diverse wing markings, which were only discovered in Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Ningcheng county, Inner Mongolia, China. Principal Findings: Saucrosmylinae Ren, 2003, originally included as a subfamily in the Osmylidae, was transferred and elevated to family rank based on the definitive synapomorphic character. The updated definition of Saucrosmylidae stat. nov. was outlined in detail: presence of nygma and trichosors; diverse markings on membrane; complicated cross-veins; distal fusion of Sc and R1; expanded space between R1 and Rs having 2–7 rows of cells that should be a synapomorphic character of the family; proximal MP fork. And the previous misuses of Saucrosmylidae are also clarified. Furthermore, a new genus with a new species and an indeterminate species of Saucrosmylidae are described as Ulrikezza aspoeckae gen. et sp. nov. and Ulrikezza sp. from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, China. A key to genera of Saucrosmylidae is provided. Conclusions/Significance: The intriguing group represents a particular lineage of Neuroptera in the Mesozoic Era. The familial status of Saucrosmylidae was firstly advanced that clarified the former incorrect citation and use of the family name. As an extinct clade, many species of the saucrosmylids were erected just based on a single fore- or hindwing, and it should be realized that providing more stable characters is necessary when describing new lacewing taxa just based on an isolated hindwing. It is vital for the systematics of Saucrosmylidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a UV-fluorescent dye-based prey marking technique, using three different dyes, with later detection of the dyes in the guts of predators using a micro-plate fluorescent reader. By using this new method of detecting dyes based on their different excitation and emission characteristics it is possible to simultaneously screen 96 samples for multiple fluorescent-markers in less than 30 minutes. The marking is stable, cheap, non-toxic and had no effect on the choice of the carabid predator Pterostichus melanarius between marked and unmarked fly larvae (Musca domestica). Different fluorescent dyes provide variable detection intervals up to 100% detectability at 96 h post-ingestion by this predator. The simple marking, extraction and detection methods presented could be used in food web research to map individual trophic links and predator preference for different types of prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) has caused significant economic damage to berry and stone fruit production regions. Markers that are systemic in plants and easily transferred to target organisms are needed to track D. suzukii exploitation of host resources and trophic interactions. High and low concentrations of the trace element, rubidium (Rb), and the stable isotope, 15N, were tested to mark D. suzukii larvae feeding on fruits of enriched strawberry plants grown in containers under greenhouse conditions. Fly marker content and proportion of flies marked 1, 7, and 14 d after emergence from enriched fruits and fly dry mass were analyzed. Nearly 100% of the flies analyzed 14 d after emerging from 15N-enriched plants were marked, whereas only 30-75% and 0-3% were marked 14 d after emerging from high and low Rb concentration plants, respectively. Rapid Rb decay, strong 15N persistence, and the economics of using these markers in the field to elucidate D. suzukii pest ecology are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various types of protein-spray solutions have proven effective for externally tagging arthropods for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture type dispersal research. However, there is concern that certain standardized arthropod collection methods, such as sweep netting, might lead to high incidences of protein transfer from field-marked to unmarked arthropods during sample collection and sample handling. Native arthropods were collected in sweep nets from a field of alfalfa, Medicago sativa L. ( Fabaceae). The nets also contained 10 egg white-, 10 bovine milk-, 10 soy milk-, and 10 water (control)-marked Hippodamia convergens Guérin- Méneville ( Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) that were visually distinguishable by a yellow, white, green, and blue dot, respectively. The plant debris and arthropods from each sweep net collection were then placed into either a paper or a plastic bag and frozen for storage. The contents of each sweep net sample were thawed and the color-coded H. convergens and field-collected arthropods were examined for the presence of each protein by an egg white (albumin), bovine milk (casein), and soy milk (soy trypsin) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA). Data revealed that only 0.67, 0.81, and 0% of the field-collected unmarked arthropods acquired an egg white, bovine milk, and soy milk mark, respectively. ELISA results also showed that all the egg white-marked H. convergens retained their mark, but 22.1% of the bovine milk-marked and 5.1% of the soy milk-marked H. convergens (color-coded beetles) lost their mark during the collection and sample handling processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field study was conducted to test the marking efficiency of broadcast spray applications of protein marks on stationary (represented by cadavers) and free-roaming lady beetles Hippodamia convergens Guérin-Méneville that were strategically placed in blooming alfalfa plots. The marks tested included three different concentrations of egg albumin from chicken egg white, casein from bovine milk and trypsin inhibitor from soy milk. The cadaver and free-roaming beetle treatments served to measure the acquisition and retention of each protein treatment regime by direct contact with the spray solution and by residual contact with protein-marked residue on alfalfa, respectively. In addition, the vertical distribution of marking efficacy was determined by sampling alfalfa plant tissue and beetle cadavers that were located on the upper and lower portion of the plant canopy. The data indicated that the backpack spray apparatus was very effective at uniformly administering the various protein marks, regardless of the concentration, throughout the entire plant canopy. Also, the free-roaming beetles readily self-marked by contact exposure to protein-treated plants. We also identified concentrations of each protein type that will mark about 90% of the resident beetle population. Moreover, if a mark-capture-type study only requires two unique protein marks, we determined that concentrations of 25% for egg white and 100% for bovine milk could be used to mark 98% of the population. Our results provide a significant step towards standardizing protein immunomarking protocols for insect mark-capture dispersal research. In addition, we identify several areas of research that are needed to further standardize the protein mark-capture procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harmonic radar technology enhances capability to track the movement of individual small insects under field conditions. To maximize the capacity of this technology, it is necessary that radar tags must be securely attached to insects and that the tags remain functional when subjected to mechanical stress. In this study, a series of experiments was carried out to test an improved harmonic radar tag designed to be more resistant to mechanical stresses and to establish that a portable harmonic radar system can effectively detect adult Halyomorpha halys Stál (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on various structures in different landscapes. The functional resistance of radar tags to ~l-m free falls on a hard surface was improved significantly by reinforcing the adhesive bond between the radar transponder and the radar wire by application of cyanoacrylate glue. This measure did not affect the detectability of radar tags, and it significantly increased the resistance of radar tags against random mechanical impacts inflicted on the insects and tags. The success rates of locating radar-tagged H. halys were compared among different landscapes, including a mowed grasscovered plot (250 m2), a mature peach tree plot (50 m2), and an unmanaged hedgerow (50 m2). The success rates were > 90% in all landscapes tested. There was no significant difference in the search time needed to locate tagged adults. In general, it took less than 2 min to detect and recover H. halys. The success rates of locating radar-tagged i?, halys were also compared among different locations within mature fruit trees. There was no significant difference in the success rates between the inner third (87%) and the outer third of the host tree canopy (100%). However, a significantly longer period of time was required to locate H. halys in the inner canopy (372 s ± 95 SE) compared with the outer canopy (148 s ± 39 SE). When H. halys were concealed in the lower, middle and upper thirds of the outer tree canopy, the success rates of locating tagged adults were consistently 95% or greater at all canopy heights with no significant difference in search times needed to locate tagged adults. The results of this study provide context for researchers to reliably use this radar system in the field to study the dispersal biology of H. halys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To clarify if bumblebees can recognize nectar through its scent in Impatiens textori flowers, we examined the behavior of Bombus diversus on nectarless flowers in which the spurs had been artificially removed. Bumblebee visits to both natural flowers and spur-cut flowers were captured using a long-term video recording system. Visiting behavior and frequency were compared between the two flower types. Many bumblebees visited both types of flower, and their visit frequencies were not significantly different. However, the length of stay on each flower type did differ, with the bumblebees remaining on the spur-cut flowers for a significantly shorter time than on the natural flowers. Our results suggest that bumblebees cannot detect the absence of nectar in I. textori flowers before probing them. Therefore, the nectar scent of I. textori does not serve to attract bumblebees although the presence of nectar will detain bumblebees on flowers for longer periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The New Zealand giraffe weevil (Lasiorhynchus barbicornis) is an endemic, wood-boring insect (Coleoptera: Brentidae). Despite being a large and charismatic species, very little is known about its life history. We conducted observations ofL. barbicornisbehaviour and ecology in a wild population west of Auckland and developed a marking system in preparation for a future large-scale observational experiment. We found that giraffe weevils were easily located and observable in the field, and therefore provide a useful model species for behavioural ecology. Adults were found to aggregate, copulate and oviposit on 17 host tree species from 16 families, extending the current host plant association records for this species. A breeding experiment determined that the length of the larval stage is a minimum of 2 years and that the population at emergence has an unbiased sex ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Harmonic radar tagging was investigated as a method for monitoring the movement of the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Because adhesive toxicity and tag weight limit the use of this technology, initial efforts focused on selection of the optimal adhesive and design of harmonic radar tags to reduce impact on the movement of stink bugs. A design consisting of a 6-cm-long 0.10-mm-thick silver-plated copper monopole on the anode terminal of a three-contact Schottky barrier diode attached with Gorilla super glue provided a compromise between unimpaired movement and tracking range, adding an additional 8% to the weight of the stink bug while not significantly (P > 0.05) reducing walking or flying mobility in the laboratory. Recovery of tagged stink bugs in cotton, Cossypium hirsutum (L.), and fallow fields ranged from 10 to 75% after 24 h, whereas marked stink bugs were recovered at rates of 0-35% by using sweep net or drop cloth sampling. The distance dispersed in the field was not impacted (P > 0.05) by crop, tagged status, or gender of the insect. Future research should examine possible improvements to the harmonic radar transceiver and the wire antenna to decrease encumbrance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Different techniques are available for colour marking insects and each technique may be suitable for different insect species. Mosquitoes can be marked to determine population size, distribution and flight distance or distinguish closely related species. In this study, two methods of colour marking mosquitoes were described in detail and the impact of both methods on the survival and host-seeking behaviour of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto was investigated. Methods: Mosquitoes were marked in groups with fluorescent powder or fluorescent dye. The powder was applied by creating a cloud of powder in a paper cup and the dye was applied with an airbrush. The effect of marking on the survival of mosquitoes of different age groups was tested under controlled conditions. The effect of marking on the host seeking response of the mosquitoes was tested in an olfactometer with human and cow odour as baits. Results: No effect of either of the marking methods was found on the survival of mosquitoes that were treated 1 or 3 days after emergence, however, the survival of mosquitoes treated 5 or 9 days after emergence was significantly reduced. The host-seeking response of mosquitoes to human or cow odour was tested in a dual-port olfactometer and was not found to be affected by treatment with fluorescent powder or dye. Conclusions: Both methods are suitable for colour marking large groups of mosquitoes. Marking with fluorescent powder, however, is preferred because the method is simpler, visible without a UV light and no specific materials are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a new inexpensive and simple method for marking large dung beetles (>10 mm), which consists in tattooing a consecutive number on their elytra or pronotum with a Mototool. The recapture rate (18.5% of 1886 marked individuals) throughout five months shows high durability of the mark without affecting the integrity of the individual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The life history and pollination biology of Tegeticula maculata (Riley), the sole pollinator of Hesperoyucca whipplei (Agavaceae), have been studied extensively, but individual moth longevity and plant-to-plant movements have remained poorly known. I recorded activity by capture, mark-release, and recapture of adult moths over a 12-day period at two sites near San Diego, California. Moths lived 2-10 days at room temperatures, and, in the field, marked Tegeticula lived 2-9 days between captures. In total, 51 of 145 (35%) marked and released moths were sighted on one or more subsequent days (33% of males, 37% of females). Males tended to stay in one or two adjacent inflorescences: 18 of 29 (62%) recaptures were recorded at the same plant as previous release, whereas females usually relocated to another plant on a following day: 24 of 29 (83%) were found on plants distant (> 2m, avg. 53 m) from the preceding capture. The results help confirm long-held assumptions that cross pollination of yuccas is provided through purposeful behavior by yucca moths moving from plant to plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A device that uses fluorescent powder to automatically mark large numbers of honeybees provides a good method to distinguish focal colony foragers from foragers of other colonies. However, when humidity is high, the powder readily forms pellets that cannot pass through the mesh and marking is diminished. We present here an apparatus to mass-mark honeybees with liquid paint. We demonstrate that this low-cost device is a highly efficient method to mark honeybees and does not produce any observable mortality on test foragers or impairing flight ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zoologists distinguish individual animals using marking techniques. Generally they test the potential influence of marking on survival only; the influence on behaviour is usually neglected. We evaluated the influence of two external marking techniques (nail polish and queen-bee marker) on the behaviour of common pill woodlouse, Armadillidium vulgare. The behaviour was examined from two points of view: (1) activity during 24 hours and (2) specific expressions of behaviour (exploring, feeding, resting and hiding) over a 24 hour period. We compared behaviour among woodlice marked with nail polish and queen-bee marker with the unmarked control group during a nine-day experiment. Although we did not find any influence of marking on survival, there was an evident influence on behaviour in most cases. Generally, in the groups of marked individuals of A. vulgare there were large differences observed against the control group in the overall activity. Activity of marked individuals was significantly reduced and they preferred hiding. The influence of polish and marker on the overall frequencies of behavioural categories was evident, mainly in feeding, resting and hiding. The influence on the frequency of exploring was significant in the polish marked group only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The parasitoid wasp Pnigalio agraules (Wlk.) is a key natural enemy of the horsechestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella Deschka and Dimić (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae). As a basis for mark-release-recapture studies, aimed at investigating the dispersal of this parasitoid in the field, adults of P. agraules were marked using a vertebrate-specific immunoglobulin (IgG). The marker was later detected by double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA). The IgG was either applied externally by spraying or internally by feeding an IgG-enriched diet. Different concentrations of the marker were used and the influence of abiotic (climatic conditions, time elapsed between marking and marker examination) and biotic factors (sex and age of the parasitoids) on the detection of the immunomarker was tested. External marking by spraying led to more homogeneous labelling than feeding the marker. Parasitoids labelled with 0.25 mg rabbit IgG per ten individuals contained enough immunomarker to be easily distinguished from unmarked ones. Neither the climatic conditions nor the sex or age of the insects had an influence on the detection of the marker. The IgG remained well detectable during the entire lifespan of the parasitoids, which was not negatively affected by the marking procedure. Serological marking can be used to investigate the dispersal behaviour of beneficial insects within mark-release-recapture studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A reliable marking technique was needed for a mark–release–recapture experiment with adults of Diabrotica speciosa (Germar). Four marking techniques, acrylic paint (spattered or brushed on the surface of the insect); and fluorescent pigments (dusted on surfaces or mixed with diet to produce an ingested marker), were tested. Fluorescent pigment durability for the dusting and ingested techniques was evaluated for laboratory conditions and under simulated field conditions. The impact of the techniques on beetle survival was also assessed. Both acrylic paint techniques caused mobility problems in the beetles, and neither technique lasted for more than 48 h. Both fluorescent pigment techniques were more reliable, but the dusting technique showed a significantly higher mortality than the control, and duration variations between laboratory and field conditions. Use of fluorescent pigments added to the diet was the most reliable technique. This technique allowed the manipulation of the marking period, and provided reliable timing of marker persistence in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After comparing the persistence of four marking techniques, a mark–release–resight study was performed to characterize mid-season movement of the Colorado potato beetle [ Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say); Col., Chrysomelidae] simultaneously in a fallow and in a wheat field. Isolated patches of potatoes were installed in a random spatial arrangement on both fields similarly. Overwintered beetles were individually marked and released. Beetles showed limited inter-patch movement activity (15.9% of recovery events) with an overall mean daily dispersal of 0.309 m (0.0–7 m). There was a significant difference in the insects’ movement distance between the fallow and wheat field but there was no difference between the movement distances of males and females. The distance between the patches varied between 1 and 7.81 m, and inter-patch movement was infrequent (15.9%). Results suggest that surrounding fields by wheat rather than fallow grounds should be studied as a possible strategy to reduce the movement of overwintered beetles between potato fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we validate and apply techniques for marking and capturing small parasitoids of the silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring [ = B. tabaci (Gennadius), strain B] for mark-release-recapture (MRR) studies. The marker is the purified protein, rabbit immunoglobulin G (IgG), which was applied externally by topical spray or internally by feeding. Marked parasitoids were then assayed using a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the presence of the protein marker using an antibody specific to rabbit IgG. Virtually all of the externally marked Eretmocerus sp. (Ethiopia, M96076) (98.0%) contained enough rabbit IgG to be easily distinguished from unmarked parasitoids, regardless of the amount of protein applied or the post-marking interval. A field MRR study was then conducted to examine the dispersal characteristics of E. emiratus Zolnerowich & Rose. Parasitoids marked externally and internally with protein were released on three separate trial dates into the center of a cotton field bordered by cantaloupe and okra. Overall, a total of 1388, 637, and 397 marked and unmarked wasps were captured in suction traps during each trial, respectively with the majority of parasitoids captured between 0600 and 0800 h. Furthermore, even though we released an equal proportion of males to females, our traps consistently contained more males. Our results suggest that there are gender-specific differences in the dispersal behavior of E. emiratus. Almost 40% of the captured parasitoids collected during the three release trials were positively identified for the presence of the protein marker. The distribution of the marked parasitoids revealed two distinct patterns. First, almost all of the marked parasitoids recaptured in the cotton plot were in suction traps at or adjacent to the. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein immunomarking can be used to track the dispersal of insects in the field or identify plant-insect interactions. By marking insects with known proteins and recapturing them, their movement or host use can be quantified with Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Before using this technique, retention and behavioral effects of these markers should be evaluated to ensure that the insect's natural behaviors are conserved. Here, we tested the effects of protein markers on the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) using two different application methods. This weevil is native to North American and a pest of tree fruit and blueberry in the United States and causes damage resulting in near complete crop loss if left untreated. We tested the effects of marking adult C. nenuphar with two inexpensive food-based immunoprotein markers, bovine casein (cow's milk) and chicken albumin (egg whites) on climbing distance (total cm), lateral movement (total cm), and lateral movement speed (cm/s), as well as retention time of protein immunomarkers. Neither protein immunomarker affected C. nenuphar movement or climbing, although females climbed significantly greater distances than males. ELISA assays detected 37.5-56.2% of milk protein and 56.2-59.3% of egg on the insect 7 d after application depending on application method. Our findings indicate that food-based protein immunomarkers can be used in future studies to test C. nenuphar movement within host plants without impacting behavior. The use of protein immunomarking will allow studies that will lead to behaviorally based management tactics., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.)

We present a new technique developed to uniquely mark individual adult green lacewings (Neuroptera Chrysopidae) with a durable, quickdrying ink applied by a very fine tipped pen. This marking method is particularly suitable for use in laboratory experiments. It is reliable, cheap, and easy to apply and to decode. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) programs, released flies are commonly marked with fluorescent dye prior to irradiation to assist subsequent identification. The impacts of dye, transport and irradiation on adult eclosion of Queensland fruit fly were investigated. Eclosion in the non-dyed, non-transported, nonirradiated pupae was 84.64%. Dyeing, transport and irradiation processes significantly reduced the adult eclosion rate to 72.88%. This reduction in adult eclosion was accompanied by a 10.2% increase in partially eclosed adults. In an additional treatment, the dye was removed from pupae following irradiation by rinsing with water. These pupae were allowed to eclose in a humid container, whereas the pupae from the other treatments were allowed to eclose in glass Petri dishes. The percentage of fully eclosed flies was 81.54% -- a significant improvement compared with standard dyed transported irradiated pupae and very close to that found in untreated controls -- and the percentage of partially eclosed flies was not significantly different from the control pupae. Both irradiation treatments had more uneclosed pupae compared to the control treatment although the three treatments differed by only 2.1% variation. Based on these results, it appears that dye and/or the eclosion environment have considerable impacts on the viability of Queensland fruit fl ies produced for SIT. There appears to be substantial room for improvement in either the marking system and/or the eclosion environment used prior to release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The marking of Drosophila suzukii can be an important instrument for studying the ecology and behaviour of this economically important fruit pest, aiding the development of new Integrated Pest Management (IPM) tools or strategies. There is, however, a need for a cost-effective methodology that provides an easily detectable and stable mark. Whereas fluorescent pigment powders are often used in entomological research, the pigments (series, dyes), application techniques, or doses need to be evaluated for each studied species in terms of their efficacy and possible adverse effects on the performance of the insect. The effectiveness of different application techniques and dyes (RadGlo® TP-series) and their effect on the survival of adult D. suzukii were investigated in the laboratory. Furthermore, the influence of the marking on the behaviour of the flies was examined in laboratory trap assays (olfaction) and a field recapture study (general orientation). The persistence and detectability of the marks was evaluated both on living flies (for different application techniques) and dead flies under trapping/storage conditions. The use of fluorescent powders to mark D. suzukii flies yielded a clearly detectable and highly persistent mark, without any adverse effects on the survival and behaviour of the flies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae) has caused significant economic damage to berry and stone fruit production regions. Markers that are systemic in plants and easily transferred to target organisms are needed to track D. suzukii exploitation of host resources and trophic interactions. High and low concentrations of the trace element, rubidium (Rb), and the stable isotope, 15N, were tested to mark D. suzukii larvae feeding on fruits of enriched strawberry plants grown in containers under greenhouse conditions. Fly marker content and proportion of flies marked 1, 7, and 14 d after emergence from enriched fruits and fly dry mass were analyzed. Nearly 100% of the flies analyzed 14 d after emerging from 15N-enriched plants were marked, whereas only 30-75% and 0-3% were marked 14 d after emerging from high and low Rb concentration plants, respectively. Rapid Rb decay, strong 15N persistence, and the economics of using these markers in the field to elucidate D. suzukii pest ecology are discussed., (© The Authors 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)