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This paper describes a collaborative research study designed to determine whether well-constructed tasks in mathematical inquiry with the use of methods in dialogic discourse help students' retention of mathematical concepts in probability. The paper reports on an experiment conducted in two classrooms in an urban school district in the Pacific Northwest. One teacher taught a fourth and fifth grade combination in a low-income area, and the other taught a second grade class in a middle to high socioeconomic status area. Over a period of 2 weeks, students were introduced to activities using penny flips and spinners designed to engage students in inductive learning methods on probability. Dialogic discourse was used to engage students in conversations about the results of their activities. Interviews were conducted of observers regarding their perceptions of student learning from the discourse in which the students engaged. Two weeks later, students responded to a written prompt asking them to describe the activities and what they had learned from them. Responses varied in depth and specificity, but all students responded positively to at least one of the concepts taught using the vocabulary of probability indicating that the activity or the discourse of a combination of the two resulted in retention of a portion of the mathematical concepts presented to the children. (Author/SLD)

As part of a larger study (not discussed) ten educated Malaysian citizens were interviewed to find whether their rising political consciousness, over a ten year period (1988-1999), indicated that their transformation was influenced by their culture. The subjects were between 35-45 years old, married, with an average of four children. All were members of the majority race, Malay, and held membership in the United Malay National Organization (UMNO), the biggest political party in Malaysia. The following research questions guided the study: (1) What triggered individuals' transformations; and (2) what facilitated the transformation to occur. Voting patterns in the 10th General Election of 1999 were meshed with interview transcripts. Two themes emerged from the data: (1) abhorrence of political scandals and upheavals during 1998-1999; and (2) a feeling of being intellectually demeaned (lied to by government authorities). The major conclusion of the study was that a political event could trigger perspective shifts and lead to transformative learning if it is perceived as threatening to the communal cultural identity. A second conclusion was that the methods used to handle the national crisis were against participants' cultural and religious values. The researchers believe the study contributed to theoretical explanations of transformative learning among individuals in a developing country. (The bibliography lists 28 references). (AJ)

This study considered differences in induction of biological properties between children and preadolescents based on differences in stimuli processing in these two groups. Two experiments tested predictions that young children, but not preadolescents, base their inductive inference on aggregating information from different sources rather than relying on a single source of information. In both experiments, children and preadolescents from three age ranges were presented with an inductive task involving triads of animal pictures: a target baby animal, and two test animals, one a "neighbor" animal who "played with the baby," and an animal who "gave birth to the baby." In experiment 1, linguistic labels were fully crossed with relationship information, whereas in experiment 2 perceptual similarity information was fully crossed with relationship and labeling information. Findings indicated that while 10- and 11-year-olds relied exclusively on inheritance (when target animal shared only inheritance information and not labeling with the mother) across experiments, 4- and 5-year-olds relied on an aggregate of multiple sources of information, and 7- and 8-year-olds fell between these 2 extremes. In addition, while the relative weight of inheritance on inferences increased with age, the weights of other information sources decreased. The results support the hypotheses suggesting that between 8 and 10 years of age, children undergo a developmental shift from a holistic feature-integration induction to knowledge-based induction based on a single most predictive source. (Contains 20 references.) (HTH)

This study describes how the lesson plans of preservice teachers differed from the inductive learning cycle planning model, and relates these differences to persistent naive conceptions about effective science pedagogy held by preservice teachers. Strategies based on the science misconceptions literature that methods instructors can use to encourage the understanding and use of inductive learning cycle instruction by beginning teachers are suggested. The study concludes that preservice teachers majoring in secondary science education like and prefer traditional teaching methods while elementary and middle school preservice teachers find traditional methods boring and ineffective. (Contains 14 references.) (YDS)

The importance of dynamic testing procedures for understanding reasoning and its underlying cognitive processes as well as for increasing validity is investigated. An experiment tested the premise that African American and White college students demonstrate equivalent inductive reasoning ability when tested under induced mediation procedures, where they are encouraged to structure their own thought processes. Subject verbalization procedures foster induced mediation, while experimenter verbalization foster imposed mediation. Participants (77 White and 45 African American undergraduates) performed better under the two dynamic conditions than under standard procedures. In addition, an interaction was found between ethnic group membership and testing condition. White participants performed equally well under either dynamic condition, while African American participants performed better under subject-directed, induced mediation than under experimenter-directed imposed mediation. As hypothesized, no differences are found between African American and White college students under induced mediation procedures. Also, validity data are consistent with earlier findings that point to the importance of considering the role of learner attributes in testing for elucidating intelligence or ability. Previous reports of White college undergraduates outperforming their African American peers on tests of general intellectual ability are due to a greater incompatibility between demands of the testing situation and preferred processing tactics for African American participants than for White participants. (Contains 1 table and 38 references.) (Author/SLD)

This paper is a part of a research program whose purpose it is to design instruction for scaffolding classroom inquiry in middle school classrooms. Scaffolding is a dynamic process, reflecting teacher adjustments based on student responses. Even though a computer, textbook, or laboratory materials may serve as proxy for a "teacher", arguably the most important source of scaffolding in a classroom is the flesh and blood teacher. The teacher decides, consciously or unconsciously, how and when to use a computer, textbook, or laboratory materials. The actions of the teacher are also the primary mediator of the scaffolding effects of other classroom materials. The purpose of inquiry-based instruction is to prompt focused effort on a specific problem. The effort includes recall and application of relevant knowledge and implementation of procedures for generating, analyzing, and interpreting data. Mental effort for inquiry requires evaluation of the fit among a problem statement, recalled knowledge, and evidence either empirical or theoretical. This type of thinking requires self-monitoring of one's understanding of the problem and processes undertaking to solve it. Middle level students are just beginning to show the capabilities for the kinds of thought necessary for scientific inquiry. However, most of the evidence for these thinking skills is clinically based (Keating, 1990). Classroom-based reasoning situations do not afford the time, focus, and cues for employing critical thinking. Cognitive scaffolding is necessary to support student thinking necessary for benefiting from inquiry-based instruction. Cognitive scaffolding has been defined as what a teacher does when working with a student "to solve a problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts: (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976, p.90). As a psychological construct, it refers to a cognitive orientation in the teacher to select and structure tasks, communicate purpose, and hold expectations with the intention of guiding student work at the limits of their independent capabilities. Scaffolding also refers to an affective orientation in the teacher that is sensitive to variations in student cognitive and affective capabilities that results in adjusting elements of the task or context that promotes continued student effort. For scaffolding to work, however, there must be a complementary cognitive and affective orientation in the student. The student must be willing to apply existing knowledge and make active use of the teacher or other resources to leverage that knowledge toward a learning goal. Student affect must be willing to accept less than immediate gratification and persevere in the task. (Contains 17 references.) (Author/YDS)

Self-regulation components linked to academic problem-solving were studied. Cognitive process instruction on analogy problems was given to 63 undergraduates on a Monday. On Wednesday, problem-solving performance within the inductive reasoning domain was assessed with 30 Remote Associate Test (RAT) problems. On Friday, problem-solving performance between the inductive and deductive problem-solving task of 20 categorical syllogism problems was assessed. Results indicate that both within- and between-domain problem-solving performance is influenced by knowledge acquired prior to practice. In both cases, this influence is indirect, being mediated by the learner's ability to monitor working memory during practice. Self-efficacy assessed during practice is directly linked to within-domain, but not between-domain problem solving. On the other hand, eductive mental activity directly influenced between-domain, but not within-domain problem-solving performance in this study. Exploratory path analysis can provide insight into the relative roles played by selected cognitive-motivational components of self-regulation when learners are required to adopt to changing demands during problem solving. (Contains one figure, three tables, and four references.) (SLD)

This study examined the effects of an inductive multimedia program, including graphs, on subjects' ability to create linear functions and conceptualize variables from word problems. Subjects were 98 undergraduate students in two sections of a computer literacy course. Students' achievements were assessed via pre- and posttests, which were parallel to the instructional themes stated in the treatment programs. Students were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups to view a version of a self-paced program. Students, regardless of treatment, scored significantly higher on posttest than pretest on both function construction and variable conceptualization. These results may have been influenced by instructional strategies, including: inquiry mathematical thinking, schema training, linked representational systems, and coordinate graph tutorial teaching. Students receiving instruction via the inductive table-and-graph program scored significantly higher on the function construction of the posttest than did students receiving the table-only treatment. Results suggest the use of inductive multimedia program treatments that incorporate many strategies including inquiry learning from data, tutorial, schema, and core representational systems for the problem of translation, specifically creation of linear function. Data specifically suggest that inductive multimedia programs that include the coordinate graph tutorial strategy have a significant effect on the function construction tasks. (Contains 101 references.) (Author/AEF)

Novices often struggle to learn qualitative data analysis, and benefit from intensive assistance. For teaching analysis more efficiently in the classroom setting, the workshop described in this paper explained and demonstrated an inductive, experiential method. The method introduces grounded theory analysis and helps students to identify, elaborate, and systematize their own approaches. The workshop included selected, abbreviated portions of the instructional process, and provided sample teaching materials. The method centers on a semistructured data analysis exercise that consists of two rounds of activity. Each round includes analysis of the same interview transcript, written reflection during the analytic process, and a guided class discussion. The exercise provides some explicit guidance, but the instructions are deliberately ambiguous at some points to force student choices. The first round provides preliminary experience with data analysis, and the second round builds on the initial learning experience as it elaborates and qualifies the grounded theory method of analysis. Three appendixes present a section of the course syllabus, an inductive analysis exercise, and sample discussion questions. (Contains 10 references.) (SLD)

This study investigated the effects of an inductive reasoning training program on children's performance on intelligence test tasks, the range of transfer, the long-term effects of training over 4 months, and the effectiveness of group training. Participating were 47 third-grade children of average ability. The 23 children randomly assigned to the training condition received a 3-week course in inductive reasoning in ten 30-minute sessions. The training program consisted of six forms of inductive reasoning tasks: (1) generalization; (2) discrimination; (3) cross-classification; (4) recognizing relations; (5) discriminating relations; and (6) system formation. Abstract material was used in 15 percent of the tasks. The remaining 85 percent consisted of either concrete material, such as blocks or picture and figure problems from the children's everyday life. Children were trained in groups of three or four, by six researchers who were not involved in administering the pre- or posttests. Control group classes completed the regular school curriculum. The Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices Test and arithmetic tasks were used as a pretest, immediate posttest, and posttest four months later. Results indicated that there was a significant, positive training effect on children's performance on inductive reasoning tasks. Far-far transfer was also observed, because the children were able to solve arithmetic problems involving relations between numbers and their common attributes which related to inductive reasoning, in which they had received no training. (Contains 43 references.) (Author/KB)

This paper examines the novel problem solving actions of a pair of college students. The analysis highlights the role of the solvers' inferential processes including abductions, deductions, and inductions as structuring resources that contribute to both their understanding of the problems they face and the emerging novelty that constitutes their viable solution activity. The purpose of this research is to clarify the processes by which learners construct new knowledge in mathematical problem solving situations, with particular focus on instances where the learner's emerging abductions help to facilitate development of novel problem solution activity. Findings indicate that: (1) abduction is characterized as an ongoing, sense-making process that constitutes the problem solver's source of ideas as to how to proceed when unexpected problems occur; (2) problem solvers' abductions aided their novel explorations, serving to organize and structure their subsequent solution activity; and (3) novelty demonstrated by the problem solvers through their abductive inferences suggests the need to rethink views toward teaching problem solving. Contains 23 references. (DDR)

A study examined 3 grammar teaching methods to understand why some methods may carry over into writing better than others. E. Bialystok and E. B. Ryan's (1985) metacognitive model of language skills was adapted to plot traditional grammar, sentence combining, and the functional/inductive approach according to the amount of analyzed knowledge and cognitive control each method requires to raise metalinguistic awareness. In so doing, the cognitive demands asked of various kinds of writers by each method can be ascertained. Research results from several studies were analyzed. Results indicated that traditional grammar is not being blended into students' writing because it requires a great deal of cognitive control and analyzed knowledge to deploy. On the other hand, neither sentence combining nor the functional/inductive approach hamstring students with multiple terms and abstract concepts to memorize. Rather, writers focus their attention on some aspect of sentence error and correction by using implicit knowledge, thus keeping the value on the analyzed knowledge axis low. Findings suggest that the highly analyzed system of traditional grammar has had limited success in carrying over into writing because: (1) its goal is to shape mental representations, necessitating an extended period of time to acquire the system; (2) control is possible only after the writer knows the system; and (3) overemphasis on that skill can undermine the production side of things. (Contains 3 figures and 37 references; notes are appended.) (Author/CR)

A number of issues in classroom second language instruction, particularly as they relate to grammar instruction, are considered in the context of recent research and theory. Discussion begins with a review of the nature and role of second language grammar instruction. Following this, these issues are explored: whether the native or target language should be used in explaining or discussing grammar; whether the inductive or deductive approach should be adopted; whether students can read basic grammar rules on their own, or need teacher intervention; whether grammar should occupy a central or more subordinate role in the classroom; how error correction should be used; whether students enjoy grammar and consider it necessary; and what constitutes grammar. The paper concludes that grammar is a necessary component of second language instruction, not to be either the primary focus of instruction or relegated to a status of unimportance, but viewed as a tool for development of communicative competence. Contains 31 references. (MSE)

This paper describes applications of logic programming technology to the teaching of the inductive method in computer science and mathematics. It discusses the nature of inductive thought and its place in those fields of inquiry, arguing that a complete logic programming system for supporting inductive inference is not only feasible but necessary. A sample dialog from the Prologb system is included, along with an overview of the Prologb language and some details about classroom experiences using the system. (Author/BEW)

This study investigated the effects of K. J. Klauer's (1989) inductive reasoning training program of teaching children. Effects of training and the range of transfer of the training were assessed. The subjects were 34 third-grade Dutch children of average ability, matched on age, sex, and IQ. Children from the training condition (N=17) received one week training of five 30 minute sessions. Results demonstrated a significant, positive effect on training children's performance of inductive reasoning tasks. A near-far transfer was observed with children able to solve tasks not taught in training. These effects persisted for 4 months. Far-far transfer was not observed because children were not able to solve mathematics tasks that relate to inductive reasoning, for which they had received no training. Implications for training children within the context of regular schools and the range of transfer are discussed. (EH)

The Concept Attainment Model is described as a teaching approach that helps students develop skills for inductive and deductive thinking while learning subject matter in any field in a constructive and meaningful way. A definition and overview of the model are presented, with guidelines for using the concept-attainment approach to design and deliver instruction and to evaluate student learning of subject matter and thinking skills. The model is an instructional approach in which teachers guide students to derive an abstract, generic idea inductively using pattern recognition and categorizing skills, and then help them deductively apply the concept in new situations. The theory of concepts of Jerome Bruner is the source of the model, which was transformed into a teaching model by B. Joyce and M. Weil (1972, 1980, 1986). Planning for teaching with the concept attainment model involves: (1) identifying a significant and definable concept; (2) analyzing its essential and defining features; and (3) designing exemplars from which the concept can be derived. The model offers teachers a method for teaching thinking across the curriculum using the subject matter of disciplines they teach. Five figures illustrate the discussion. (Contains 10 references.) (SLD)

The philosophical notions introduced by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) are helpful for researchers in understanding the nature of knowledge and reality. In the Peircean logical system, the logic of abduction and deduction contribute to our conceptual understanding of a phenomenon, while the logic of induction adds quantitative details to the conceptual knowledge. Although Peirce justified the validity of induction as a self-corrective process, he asserted that neither induction nor deduction can help us to unveil the internal structure of meaning. As exploratory data analysis performs the function of a model builder for confirmatory data analysis, abduction plays the role of explorer of viable paths to further inquiry. Thus, the logic of abduction fits well into exploratory data analysis. At the stage of abduction, the goal is to explore the data, find out a pattern, and suggest a plausible hypothesis; deduction is to refine the hypothesis based upon other plausible premises; and induction is the empirical substantiation. (Contains 55 references.) (Author)

Mental models or implicit theories held by adults about everyday problem solving were studied. Research questions were posed to 12 male and 12 female adults, aged 25 to 60 years, from a wide range of educational and occupational orientations. Subjects were interviewed in pairs. Verbal Protocol Analysis was used to analyze the data from two distinct vantages: first through a content analysis of specific responses to the interview questions, and then through the frequency of responses obtained from the application of a coding grid developed for the study. A generic model was derived and applied to recuperate and elaborate the emerging mental models. The integrated framework on induction proposed by J. H. Holland and others (1986) was adopted as a conceptual framework for the study by virtue of its use for ill-defined problems and its application to social science research. Results identify the predominance of the interpersonal and emotional factors salient to this genre of problem solving. Individual differences, communication, and problem identification are highlighted as the most significant and difficult areas on which success was contingent. Degrees of self-confidence and habitual usage of a system of method were seen to be significant factors, often correlated with experience and education. Two tables and two figures illustrate the study. (Author/SLD)

This paper summarizes our present knowledge and understanding of the processes and outcomes of learning. The basic idea about learning is that the outcomes of learning (e.g., propositional knowledge, procedural skills, and mental models) reflect differences in learning processes (e.g., encoding skills, attention allocation, and hypothesis generation). Additionally, learning outcomes reflect differences in conative processes, knowledge structures, and metacognitive skills, mediated by the learning processes. Against the background of a brief historical introduction, this article presents a research-based overview of the major categories of educationally relevant learning outcomes and of the underlying acquisition processes. In this perspective, different learning environments are discussed such as learning by direct instruction, drill and practice, and discovery. Finally, implications for the design of computerized instructional environments are indicated. (Contains 9 figures and 83 references.) (Author)

Aptitude-treatment interactions (ATIs) refer to the covariation between learner characteristic and instructional treatment in relation to some outcome measure. To systematically test for ATI, an intelligent tutoring system instructing in basic principles of electricity was chosen as a complex but controlled learning task. Two learning environments were created from this one tutor, differing only in feedback. In the rule-application environment, the system provided learners with relevant principles, and in the rule-induction environment, learners had to induce principles on their own. Subjects were 309 adult high school graduates approached through a temporary employment agency. The learner characteristic examined was exploratory behavior, a measure of on-line tool usage. It was hypothesized that exploratory learners would learn faster and better if they had been assigned to the inductive environment and fewer exploratory learners would benefit from the more structured application environment. Results show significant aptitude-treatment interactions in the data, confirming the hypothesis. Implications are discussed in relation to the design of intelligent tutoring systems. Eleven figures and six tables illustrate the discussion and present study findings. (Contains 30 references.) (SLD)

This study investigated how people reason about simple mechanical devices and physical systems, and how reasoning methods and understanding of a device evolve over a period of exposure. Twelve students attending the Teachers College at Columbia University (New York) participated in the first of two experiments; and 10 students attending the same Teachers College participated in the second experiment and were randomly assigned to five dyads. The first experiment used a quantified protocol in which spontaneous hand movements were considered evidence of modeling; dramatic reductions in reaction time were evidence of rule induction. The second experiment organized subjects into problem-solving dyads. The inductive movement between analog models and number-based rules was documented for problems about gear movement. It was found that subjects rely initially upon an analog model until a satisfactory rule is induced. However, when a problem was introduced that led to failure of the rule, subjects returned to a model. Exophoric references were used as evidence that subjects were reasoning about models. Numeric expressions were taken as evidence of rule induction under the logic that the rule operates over numbers rather than gears. The strengths of each type of reasoning are discussed. Models are conceptualized as a quasi-empirical base from which to draw the basic patterns and relevant parameters for rule induction. Three figures are included. (TJH)

Group norms are provided for the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST)--College Level, a standardized 34-item multiple-choice test designed to assess the core critical thinking skills associated with baccalaureate general education. The CCTST offers three subtests conceptualized in terms of a national Delphi study on critical thinking. These three subtests--analysis, evaluation, and inference--correlate strongly with each other and the overall CCTST when used as either a pretest or posttest. Subtests are also offered based on the more traditional division of reasoning into "deductive reasoning" and "inductive reasoning." These latter two subtests also correlate strongly with each other and the overall CCTST when used as either a pretest or posttest. Statistical analyses, correlations, and recommended percentile rankings for raw scores are presented in nine tables. These norms were developed on the basis of analyses of 1,673 test forms for representative samples of college students at a comprehensive urban state university during the 1989-90 school year. (SLD)