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The prevailing view regarding the evolution of medicine is that the emergence of settled agricultural societies around 10,000 years ago (the Neolithic Revolution) gave rise to a host of health problems that had previously been unknown among non-sedentary foraging populations, stimulating the first major innovations in prehistoric medical practices1,2. Such changes included the development of more advanced surgical procedures, with the oldest known indication of an ‘operation’ formerly thought to have consisted of the skeletal remains of a European Neolithic farmer (found in Buthiers-Boulancourt, France) whose left forearm had been surgically removed and then partially healed3. Dating to around 7,000 years ago, this accepted case of amputation would have required comprehensive knowledge of human anatomy and considerable technical skill, and has thus been viewed as the earliest evidence of a complex medical act3. Here, however, we report the discovery of skeletal remains of a young individual from Borneo who had the distal third of their left lower leg surgically amputated, probably as a child, at least 31,000 years ago. The individual survived the procedure and lived for another 6–9 years, before their remains were intentionally buried in Liang Tebo cave, which is located in East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, in a limestone karst area that contains some of the world’s earliest dated rock art4. This unexpectedly early evidence of a successful limb amputation suggests that at least some modern human foraging groups in tropical Asia had developed sophisticated medical knowledge and skills long before the Neolithic farming transition.

Berdasarkan sumber prasasti, diketahui bahwa kearifan lokal masyarakat Bali dalam mengelola sumber daya air setidaknya telah ada sejak abad ke-11. Adapun pertanian dengan sistem subak muncul sejak abad ke-8. Pengelolaan sumber daya air dalam masyarakat Bali berpijak pada pemuliaan air dan alam sekitarnya yang berpedoman pada konsep Tri Hita Karana yang terdiri atas Parhyangan, Pawongan, dan Palemahan. Parhyangan berkenaan dengan kepercayaan pemuliaan air melalui upacara ritual. Pawongan berkenaan dengan warga desa adat yang mengelola sumber daya air sesuai aturan yang disepakati (awig-awig). Kemudian palemahan berkenaan dengan pengelolaan tata ruang yang mempertimbangkan resapan air, pemuliaan vegetasi, pengaturan pola hunian, dan keselarasannya dengan sumber air. Tujuan penelitian adalah mengidentifikasi nilai-nilai kearifan di dalam pengelolaan sumber daya air di Bali beserta status keberlanjutannya. Adapun metode yang digunakan adalah studi kepustakaan, survei, analisis deskriptif, serta analisis keberlanjutan dengan metode Multi-Dimensional Scalling (MDS). Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa status keberlanjutan pengelolaan air mempunyai nilai relatif tinggi pada dimensi sosial-budaya dan nilai relatif rendah pada dimensi ekonomi-ekologi. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan perbaikan melalui strategi kebijakan guna menyelaraskan setiap dimensi pembangunan berkelanjutan agar peradaban pengelolaan air di Bali, khususnya di Bali Selatan, dapat berlangsung optimal. Kata kunci: pengelolaan air, budaya berkelanjutan, Bali Abstract. Sustainable Water Resources Management in South Bali. The ancient Bali inscriptions inform that the Balinese people had developed water management based on their local wisdom since at least the 11th century. The agricultural irrigation system called Subak has existed even further since the 8th century. The water management system in Balinese society accentuates revering and honoring the water and its natural surroundings by applying the Tri Hita Karana concept in everyday life, which consists of Parhyangan, Pawongan, and Palemahan. Parhyangan is related to the belief in revering the water through ritual ceremonies. Pawongan is associated with the traditional village residents who managed water resources following agreed rules (awig-awig). Finally, Palemahan is related to spatial management by considering water conservation areas, vegetation areas, and occupancy areas with its water source’s sustainability. The study aims to identify the local knowledge in water management practices and determine the continuity status of its constancy. The data collection uses literature study, survey, descriptive analysis, and Multi-Dimensional Scaling analysis. The results represent that the sustainability status of water management has a relatively high score in the social-culture dimension. In contrast, it has a relatively low score in the economy and ecology dimensions. Therefore, it needs policy strategies to balance every extent of Bali’s water management so it can be optimized, especially in the South Bali area. Keywords: water management, cultural sustainability, Bali

The equatorial tropics house some of the earliest rock art yet known, and it is weathering at an alarming rate. Here we present evidence for haloclasty (salt crystallisation) from Pleistocene-aged rock art panels at 11 sites in the Maros-Pangkep limestone karsts of southern Sulawesi. We show how quickly rock art panels have degraded in recent decades, contending that climate-catalysed salt efflorescence is responsible for increasing exfoliation of the limestone cave surfaces that house the ~ 45 to 20-thousand-year-old paintings. These artworks are located in the world’s most atmospherically dynamic region, the Australasian monsoon domain. The rising frequency and severity of El Niño-induced droughts from anthropogenic climate change (that is, higher ambient temperatures and more consecutive dry days), combined with seasonal moisture injected via monsoonal rains retained as standing water in the rice fields and aquaculture ponds of the region, increasingly provide ideal conditions for evaporation and haloclasty, accelerating rock art deterioration.

The prevailing view regarding the evolution of medicine is that the emergence of agricultural societies around 10,000 years ago (the ‘Neolithic Revolution’) gave rise to a host of health problems that were previously unknown among non-sedentary foraging populations, stimulating the first major innovations in prehistoric medico-socio-cultural practices1,2. Such changes included the development of more advanced surgical procedures, with the oldest known indication of an ‘operation’ formerly held to consist of a farmer with a surgically amputated arm from a Neolithic site in France, dating to around 7,000 years ago3. This accepted case of amputation would have required comprehensive knowledge of human anatomy and considerable technical skill and has thus been viewed as the earliest evidence in world history for a complex medical act3. Here, however, we report the discovery of skeletal remains from Borneo of a young individual who had their lower left leg surgically amputated, probably as a child, at least 31,000 years ago. The individual survived the surgical procedure, living for at least another six to nine years before intentional burial within Liang Tebo cave—located in East Kalimantan, in a limestone karst area that hosts some of the world’s earliest dated rock art4. This unexpectedly early evidence for successful limb amputation implies that modern human foraging groups had developed sophisticated medical knowledge and skills long before the Neolithic farming transition.

The research result obtained during research activities in Tambora can be used as reference in reconstructing the civilization of Tambora, of which is the strength owned by the Tambora Site. Apart from the strength, the opportunities and challenges in the management of Tambora Site need to be assessed. To guide this idea, a qualitative approach with a matrix or SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, and Treats) was applied. The crucial threats and challenges are the security of the site area that is widely open and has not been accommodated in the management of land structure. However, the mobilization of the strength owned by Tambora site will be able to change the treat and challenges into opportunities, if they are synergized with the power of a vigorous publications. It can be used to as an opportunity to grow awareness of the community and regional government to be more active and improving care in the management of the Tembora site. In the future, the strength of Tembora can be of great opportunity to keep conducting research by involving various stakeholders from multidiscipline as well as from the private sectors. Hasil penelitian yang diperoleh selama kegiatan riset di Tambora dapat dijadikan acuan dalam merekonstruksi peradaban Tambora, yang merupakan kekuatan (strength) yang dimiliki oleh situs Tambora. Disamping kekuatan, perlu dikaji pula mengenai peluang dan tantangan dalam pengelolaan situs Tambora. Memandu pemikiran ini, dipergunakan analisis atau pendekatan kualitatif dengan matriks SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, dan Threats ). Ancaman dan tantangan yang paling krusial adalah keamanan terhadap kawasan situs yang terbuka luas dan belum diakomodir dalam penataan tata ruang kawasan. Meski demikian, mobilisasi kekuatan yang dimiliki situs Tambora bisa saja merubah ancaman dan tantangan menjadi peluang, jika disinergikan dengan kekuatan publikasi yang gencar. Hal ini dapat dijadikan peluang menumbuhkan kesadaran masyarakat dan pemerintah daerah setempat untuk semakin peduli bahkan berperan aktif dalam pengelolaan Tambora. Kedepannya, kekuatan situs Tambora dapat dijadikan peluang untuk terus mengadakan riset dengan melibatkan berbagai pihak dari berbagai multi disiplin dan swasta secara terpadu.

Humans seem to have an adaptive predisposition for inventing, telling and consuming stories1. Prehistoric cave art provides the most direct insight that we have into the earliest storytelling2–5, in the form of narrative compositions or ‘scenes’2,5 that feature clear figurative depictions of sets of figures in spatial proximity to each other, and from which one can infer actions taking place among the figures5. The Upper Palaeolithic cave art of Europe hosts the oldest previously known images of humans and animals interacting in recognizable scenes2,5, and of therianthropes6,7—abstract beings that combine qualities of both people and animals, and which arguably communicated narrative fiction of some kind (folklore, religious myths, spiritual beliefs and so on). In this record of creative expression (spanning from about 40 thousand years ago (ka) until the beginning of the Holocene epoch at around 10 ka), scenes in cave art are generally rare and chronologically late (dating to about 21–14 ka)7, and clear representations of therianthropes are uncommon6—the oldest such image is a carved figurine from Germany of a human with a feline head (dated to about 40–39 ka)8. Here we describe an elaborate rock art panel from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4 (Sulawesi, Indonesia) that portrays several figures that appear to represent therianthropes hunting wild pigs and dwarf bovids; this painting has been dated to at least 43.9 ka on the basis of uranium-series analysis of overlying speleothems. This hunting scene is—to our knowledge—currently the oldest pictorial record of storytelling and the earliest figurative artwork in the world. A rock art panel from Sulawesi—dated to at least 43.9 thousand years ago—represents the oldest currently known figurative art in the world, and provides evidence of early storytelling through narrative hunting scenes.

Opsi untuk Penelitian Arkeologi Bersama, Ethno-Arkeologi dan Antropologi di Papua. Papua memiliki potensi arkeologi yang besar, serta masih dijumpai tradisi prasejarah yang masih berlangsung hingga saat ini. Provinsi Papua dan Papua Barat menawarkan kesempatan yang sangat menarik untuk penelitian interdisipliner di bidang prasejarah dan keragaman budaya. Temuan arkeologis menunjukkan bahwa manusia mendiami bagian timur New Guinea sekitar 40.000-50.000 tahun yang lalu. Karena imigrasi utama kemungkinan besar terjadi dari barat Pulau New Guinea dihuni lebih awal. Penelitian arkeologi dan terkait sejauh ini hanya menetapkan beberapa situs dan bukti-bukti lain dari hunian awal manusia prasejarah di Papua Nugini. Tulisan ini bertujuan menggambarkan potensi penelitian arkeologi, antropologi, etnografi di Papua dan menyebutkan secara khusus penelitian arkeologi dan etnoarkeologi di Kabupaten Pegunungan Bintang, di wilayah suku Mek dan Ok. Metode penelitian dalam tulisan ini yaitu studi pustaka, survei, ekskavasi dan pendekatan etnoarkeologi. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa pegunungan Papua menjadi pusat pertanian awal di dunia. Hingga saat ini masih dijumpai tradisi prasejarah di Papua yaitu pembuatan kapak batu, alat tulang dan tradisi megalitik. Tradisi prasejarah ini dijumpai di wilayah pegunungan dan pesisir. Penelitian, pertanggalan absolut situs dan publikasi arkeologi Papua masih sedikit jika dibandingkan dengan Papua Nugini. Hal ini menjadi potensi ke depan untuk melakukan penelitian dan publikasi bersama. Kata kunci: Etnografi, prasejarah, warisan budaya, rumah peradaban Abstract. With its prehistoric tradition still found to this present day, Papua is considered to have high archaeological potential. Papua and West Papua Provinces offer particularly interesting opportunities for interdisciplinary research in prehistory and cultural diversity. Archaeological findings show that humans inhabited the eastern half of New Guinea (NG) at least 40,000–50,000 years ago. As primary immigration most likely happened from west to east, the western half of the island of NG must have been inhabited even earlier. Archaeological and related research has established only a few sites and other signs of early human occupancy in the Indonesian part of NG. This review describes the potential of archaeological, anthropological, and ethnographic research in the Indonesian Papuan Provinces and specifically discusses recent ethnographic, archaeological, and ethno-archaeological work carried out in the Star Mountain Regency among the Mek and the Ok. The research methods employed in this research were literature review, survey, excavation, and ethnoarchaeological approaches. The findings show that Papuan highlands became one of the earliest centres of horticulture. Until now, there are still prehistoric traditions found in Papua, such as stone adzes, bone tools, and megalithic traditions. These prehistoric traditions are easily found in the highlands and coastal areas. Research sites absolute dating, and archaeological publication related to Papua is still considered low compared to PNG. Many facets of Papuan cultural diversity are still to be discovered for future research and collaborative publication. Keywords: Ethnography, prehistory, cultural heritage, rumah peradaban

Tambora Sultanate played an important role in the trade hegemony in Nusa Tenggara. Tambora was an area which had many natural resources and produced weaving textile. It made Tambora become strategic as the main zone of comodity that supported Bima Sultanate or did direct selling to other kingdoms and traders. Based on survey and excavation method, it is known that the trading comodities were coffee, hazelnut, honey, deer jerked meat, ropes, weaving crafts, and horses. Some variables that supported the argument that Tambora was a trading zone namely Tambora was rich in natural resources and there were efforts to produce comodities to be sold. Tambora had strategic location which could access to Labuhan Kenanga and Teluk Saleh, trade route to Nusa Tenggara. Tambora was also famous as an area with many bandars which gave a chance for Tambora to be an important part of trading activity. Kesultanan Tambora berperan dalam hegemoni perdagangan di wilayah Nusa Tenggara. Sebagai wilayah yang memiliki sumberdaya alam serta memproduksi kerajinan tenun, menjadi strategis, baik sebagai kawasan penyangga komoditi untuk kesultanan Bima, maupun hubungan dagang langsung dengan kerajaan atau pedagang lainnya. Berdasarkan metode survei dan ekskavasi yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini dapat menjawab permasalahan tentang komoditi perdagangan yang dimiliki Tambora adalah kopi, kemiri, madu, dendeng rusa, tali tambang, kerajinan tenun dan kuda. Diketahui sejumlah variabel yang mendukung keberadaan Tambora sebagai kawasan perdagangan, selain sumberdaya alam, ada upaya memproduksi komoditi dagang. Variabel geografi s letak kesultanan Tambora strategis memiliki akses ke Labuhan Kenanga dan Teluk Saleh yang merupakan jalur perdagangan ke kawasan Nusa Tenggara. Peranan kesultanan Bima sebagai kawasan yang terkenal memiliki bandar ramai pada waktu itu memberi peluang Tambora dalam kegiatan perdagangan.

Le site de Kota Cina, a Sumatra, est un ancien comptoir commercial portuaire du Detroit de Malacca, actif entre les xie et xive siecles ap. J.-C. qui se localise aujourd’hui dans les terres, a 7 km du rivage. Cet article presente la sequence chronostratigraphique de Kota Cina et les principaux vestiges archeologiques qui lui sont associees, dans le but de restituer sa paleogeographie et les processus d’evolution environnementale qui l’on affecte entre son occupation initiale et son abandon. L’etude du remplissage sedimentaire a permis de mettre en evidence trois phases d’evolutions majeures : (1) avant l’arrivee des premiers occupants, le site de l'etude se trouve probablement a proximite du littoral, il est caracterise par une sequence volcano-sedimentaire associee a un large remaniement fluviatile ; (2) au xie siecle ap. J.-C., Kota Cina s’erige dans une zone humide marecageuse estuarienne colonisee par une mangrove ; (3) entre les xiie et xiiie siecles ap. J.-C., l’environnement estuarien dans lequel se developpe le site s’envase progressivement, par des apports sedimentaires terrigenes. L'envasement, qui coupe les voies de communication navigables vers le rivage, est probablement l’une des causes de l'abandon du site au debut du xive siecle. Ces evolutions paysageres resultent de processus de sedimentation intenses associees a une progradation du trait de cote. Ce phenomene, commun a l’ensemble de la plaine littorale orientale de Sumatra, est continu au moins depuis 2000 ans et resulte de facteurs naturels et anthropiques.

In archaeological sites where plant remains (charcoal, seeds, pollens…) are not preserved, phytoliths constitute a major proxy to provide information about resources and human practices. Because of their siliceous structure, they offer new perspectives to reconstruct environmental changes and human development. This paper presents the first phytolith analysis in Sumatra (western Indonesia) from the historical archaeological site of Kota Cina. This site was an ancient trade harbour of the Strait of Malacca between the XI–XIVth centuries AD. Nowadays, it is located at 7 km from the coast. This study aims to assess the potential of phytoliths in a coastal tropical wetland. The objectives of this paper are (1) to document the vegetation evolution in a coastal environment changing in Kota Cina during the last 1000 years and (2) the human activities impact (e.g. land clearings, cultivations) on the environment. The phytolith assemblages of seventeen modern soil samples collected in various habitats and twenty-six fossil samples were analysed. The results underline the potential of the phytolith signature and the difficulties of interpretation of the assemblages of certain environments, especially because of a complex taphonomy. However, in combination with geomorphological and archaeological data, the study of phytoliths provides four stages of vegetation changes over the last 1000 years: (1) before the first human settlements, the volcano-sedimentary sequence of the site is devoid of phytoliths; (2) in the XIth century AD, the estuarine environment of Kota Cina is covered with a dense forest to the south and a palm mangrove to the north; (3) between the XIIth and the XIIIth centuries AD, the vegetation changes with the first human settlements and siltation of the estuarine land. Poaceae morphotypes increase and the first cultivated plants are identified as Musaceae. In the north, the vegetation is similar to that of the XIth century AD; (4) After the XIIIth century AD and the abandonment of the site, a widespread opening of the vegetation occurs as attested by the increase of Poaceae GSCP. This is probably the result of the human land clearings due to the development of colonial plantations from the XIXth century onwards in a more terrestrial geomorphological context.

The degradation of nature has potential to weaken the harmony between humans and their environment in a number of subak. Subak culture is only effective at the level of the superstructure, but the level of implementation is that subak have begun to be degraded due to land conversion, transfer of professions, poor economies, and young people who do not want to continue subak tradition. The purpose of this research is to see the existence of subak civilization then creates the policy strategy to develop Subak’s role as an ecological civilization tourism destination. The effectiveness method was used to see the existence of subak and AWOT Method as subak developing strategy to an ecoculture-tourism. Based on the results of effectiveness analysis and AWOT, it shows that subak culture as Bali civilization at the superstructure level is still exists and strong. However, at implementation level, there had been a weakening especially in urban areas. The implementation and preservation of the Sarbagita community based on the three components study was quite effective even for the superstructure component into a very effective category with an effectiveness value of 83.84%. So the components of the superstructure need to be maintained as a fortress of civilization in Sarbagita. However, the components of the social structure and infrastructure had quite low values, which are 59.55 percent and 50.32 percent respectively, which was included in the effective category but located in critical value. So it needs to improve level of social structure and infrastructure so that the three components of the subak civilization run effectively.Degradasi alam berpotensi melemahkan harmonisasi antara manusia dan lingkungannya di sejumlah subak. Budaya subak hanya efektif pada tingkat suprastruktur, tetapi dalam implementasinya subak telah mulai terdegradasi karena konversi lahan, pengalihan profesi, ekonomi miskin, dan kaum muda yang tidak ingin melanjutkannya. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat keberadaan peradaban subak, kemudian strategi kebijakan dalam mengembangkan peran subak sebagai tujuan wisata peradaban ekologis. Metode efektivitas digunakan untuk melihat keberadaan subak dan metode AWOT sebagai strategi pengembangan subak untuk wisata peradaban ekologi. Berdasarkan hasil analisis efektifitas dan AWOT menunjukkan bahwa budaya subak sebagai peradaban Bali di tingkat suprastruktur masih ada dan kuat. Namun, pada level implementasi telah terjadi pelemahan, terutama di daerah perkotaan. Pelaksanaan dan pelestarian masyarakat Sarbagita berdasarkan tiga komponen (sebutkan komponennya) yang diteliti efektif bahkan untuk komponen superstruktur masuk kedalam kategori sangat efektif dengan nilai efektivitas sebesar 83.84%. Sehingga komponen superstruktur perlu dipertahankan sebagai benteng peradaban di Sarbagita. Namun untuk komponen struktur sosial dan infrastruktur mempunyai nilai cukup rendah yaitu berturut-turut 59.55 persen dan 50.32 persen yang termasuk dalam kategori efektif tetapi berada pada titik kritis. Sehingga perlu dilakukan perbaikan pada tataran struktur sosial dan infrastruktur agar ketiga komponen peradaban subak berjalan efektif.

Lambanapu Site: Diaspora Austronesia In East Sumba. The research at Lambanapu Site aims to determine the position of Lambanapu in the distribution and development of Austronesian ancestors and their culture in Sumba. The method used is survey, excavation, analysis, and interpretation. The results of the research are skeletal findings and urn burial also artifacts which are pottery, beads, metal jewelry, and stone tools. From the dating result it is known that Lambanapu Site was inhabited at least 2.000 years ago and from paleantropology analysis, it is estimated that the individuals found from primary and secondary burial in Lambanapu are a mixture of Mongoloid and Australomelanesoid. Genetic mixing is very possible, given the history of the archipelago's occupation which was filled by several waves of great migration in the past. The Lambanapu site has provided an overview of Sumba's ancestral life in the context of the archipelago. The Lamabanapu research results show us, how Lambanapu and Sumba in general rich with historical and cultural values of the past that are very useful for today's life. The wealth of historical and cultural values is not only for local interests, but also to fill the rich history and culture of the archipelago, and even contribute to global history. Keywords: Lambanapu, prehistoric, Austronesian Abstrak, Penelitian di Situs Lambanapu bertujuan untuk mengetahui posisi Lambanapu dalam persebaran dan perkembangan leluhur Austronesia dan budayanya di Sumba. Metode yang dilakukan adalah survei, ekskavasi, analisis, dan interpretasi. Hasil penelitian berupa temuan rangka dan kubur tempayan serta artefak berupa gerabah, manik-manik, perhiasan logam, dan alat batu. Dari hasil pertanggalan diketahui bahwa setidaknya Situs Lambanapu telah dihuni 2.000 tahun yang lalu. Hasil analisis paleoantropologi diperkirakan individu yang ditemukan di Lambanapu, baik kubur primer maupun sekunder, merupakan percampuran antara Mongoloid dan Australomelanesoid. Percampuran genetika memang sangat memungkinkan terjadi mengingat sejarah hunian Nusantara yang terisi oleh beberapa gelombang migrasi besar pada masa lampau. Situs Lambanapu telah memberikan gambaran kehidupan leluhur Sumba dalam konteks Nusantara. Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan betapa Lambanapu dan Sumba pada umumnya memiliki kekayaan nilai sejarah dan budaya masa lampau yang sangat bermanfaat bagi kehidupan masa kini. Kekayaan nilai sejarah dan budayanya tidak hanya untuk kepentingan lokal, tetapi juga untuk mengisi kekayaan sejarah dan budaya Nusantara, bahkan kontribusi bagi sejarah global. Kata kunci : Lambanapu, prasejarah, Austronesia