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Digital preservation is a field of research focused on designing strategies for maintaining digital objects accessible for general use in the coming years. Out of the many approaches to digital preservation, the present research article is a continuation work of a previously published article containing a proposal for a novel object-centered paradigm to address the digital preservation problem where digital objects share part of the responsibility for self-preservation. In the new framework, the behavior of digital objects is modeled to find the best preservation strategy. The results presented in the current article add a new economic constraint to the object behavior. Now, differently from the previous paper, migrations, copies and updates are not free to use, but subject to budget limitations to ensure the economic sustainability of the whole preservation system, forcing the now-called cost-aware digital objects for efficient management of available budget. The presented approach compares two auction-based mechanisms, a multi-unit auction and a combinatorial auction, with a simple direct purchase strategy as possible efficient behaviors for budget management. TiM, a simulated environment for running distributed digital ecosystems, is used to perform the experiments. The simulated results map the relation between the studied purchase models with the sustained quality level of digital objects, as a measure of its accessibility, together with its budget management capabilities. About the results, the best performance corresponds to the combinatorial auction model. The results are a good approach to deal with the digital preservation problem from a sustainable point of view and open the door to future implementations with other purchase strategies This research was funded by the PRESERVA 2019 PROD 00024 and VoteVote DEMOC00001 of the AGAUR

Background Benznidazole and nifurtimox are effective drugs used to treat Chagas’ disease; however, their administration in patients in the chronic phase of the disease is still limited, mainly due to their limited efficacy in the later chronic stage of the disease and to the adverse effects related to these drugs. Objectives To evaluate the effect of low doses of nanoformulated benznidazole using a chronic model of Trypanosoma cruzi Nicaragua infection in C57BL/6J mice. Methods Nanoformulations were administered in two different schemes: one daily dose for 30 days or one dose every 7 days, 13 times. Results Both treatment schemes showed promising outcomes, such as the elimination of parasitaemia, a reduction in the levels of T. cruzi-specific antibodies and a reduction in T. cruzi-specific IFN-γ-producing cells, as well as an improvement in electrocardiographic alterations and a reduction in inflammation and fibrosis in the heart compared with untreated T. cruzi-infected animals. These results were also compared with those from our previous work on benznidazole administration, which was shown to be effective in the same chronic model. Conclusions In this experimental model, intermittently administered benznidazole nanoformulations were as effective as those administered continuously; however, the total dose administered in the intermittent scheme was lower, indicating a promising therapeutic approach to Chagas’ disease.

Para entender la aparición y la repercusión de las obras de las llamadas «escritoras guapas» (meinü zuojia) hay que partir de una aproximación interdisciplinaria (combinando la antropología cultural y los estudios de traducción) que permita leerlo también en clave china, es decir, conocer las circunstancias que envuelven este fenómeno socio-literario en el contexto donde se engendran, así como las que permiten que se conviertan en un producto cultural global y nos lleguen traducidas. Como punto de partida tomamos prestada la idea de García- Canclini (2004) de relacionar los conceptos de desigualdad, diferencia y desconexión para analizar hasta qué punto la imagen que se proyecta de ellas de exclusión de la cultura dominante, es un elemento más con el que juegan las editoriales como parte de su estrategia comercial. Finalmente, analizaremos cuál es el papel de todos los integrantes de este proceso (autoras, lectores, editoriales y traductores. To be able to understand the image and the impact of the works of the so-called «beautiful writers» (meinü zuojia) we must take an interdisciplinary approach (combining cultural anthropology and translation studies) that allows usto interpret it from the Chinese standpoint.This helps us understand the circumstances surrounding thissocio-literary phenomenon within its context, as well as those that make possible for these novelsto become a global cultural product and eventually be translated into Western languages. We have borrowed from García-Canclini (2004) the idea of working simultaneously with the concepts of inequality, difference, and disconnection to analyse to what extent these writers' projected image of exclusion from the mainstream culture −both because their works have been censured and because of the valuesthey reflect through their female main characters− is based on reality or if, on the contrary, it isjust part of the publishers' commercialstrategy. Finally, we will analyse the role of all the subjectstaking part in this process(authors, readers, publishing houses and translators), as well as how they interrelate within their own literary systems and between two different ones.

Background: The standard treatment for nagana and surra, vector–born parasite diseases, is a single intramuscular (i.m.) dose of diminazene aceturate (Berenil), an aromatic diamidine. Due to discontinuation of public provision of veterinary services or to lack of access to remote areas, low income farmers inject livestock and other domestic animals by themselves. We tested a not explored administration route for drugs against parasitological infections: the intranasal one. Berenil alone dissolved in water did not reach an effective drug concentration. Methods: Mice were infected with Trypanosoma brucei brucei or Trypanosoma evansi and treated with different formulations of Berenil. Survival, parasitemia, body weight and behavior were recorded. Results: Berenil formulated with chitosan reached a lethal concentration for bloodstream parasites. Residual parasites were absent, as demonstrated by immunosuppression. Conclusion: The intranasal route is an effective, safer, and easier way to perform antiparasitic treatments in animals.

This paper presents about our research in social search. Generally, the research in social search falls into two principal challenges. The first challenge is how to find more relevant answers to the question. The second one is how to increase speed in finding relevant answers. Recently, we had provided two algorithms called Asknext and Question Waves to find more relevant answers compared to the baseline algorithm BFS. But, the search speed of the two proposed algorithms still the subject to improve. In this paper, we introduce the agents’ ability of learning the answers from the interactions with other agents so that they can quickly answer the question of other agents. We model this learning process by implementing the concept of data caching as the short-term memory of each social search agent. The result improvement of the speediness and the reduction of the number of messages used to communicate between agents, after apply agent's short-term memory concept, demonstrates the usefulness of the proposed approach This work was supported in part by by the EU's 7FP under grant agreement no 316097, by the TIN2013-48040-R (QWAVES) Nuevos métodos de automatización de la búsqueda social basados en waves de preguntas, the IPT20120482430000 (MIDPOINT) Nuevos enfoques de preservación digital con mejor gestión de costes que garantizan su sostenibilidad, VirCoin2SME – num. H2020-MSCA-RISE SEP 210165853. Social, complementary or community virtual currencies transfer of knowledge to SME: a new era for competitiveness and entrepreneurship, and VISUAL AD, RTC-2014-2566-7 and GEPID, RTC-2014-2576-7, as well as the grup de recerca consolidat CSI-ref. 2014 SGR 1469

Títol de la versió preprint d'aquest article (versió enviada que encara no ha passat per la revisió d'experts): 'Question Waves: an algorithm that combines answer relevance with speediness in social search' This paper describes Question Waves, an algorithm that can be applied to social search protocols, such as Asknext or Sixearch. In this model, the queries are propagated through the social network, with faster propagation through more trustable acquaintances. Question Waves uses local information to make decisions and obtain an answer ranking. With Question Waves, the answers that arrive first are the most likely to be relevant, and we computed the correlation of answer relevance with the order of arrival to demonstrate this result. We obtained correlations equivalent to the heuristics that use global knowledge, such as profile similarity among users or the expertise value of an agent. Because Question Waves is compatible with the social search protocol Asknext, it is possible to stop a search when enough relevant answers have been found; additionally, stopping the search early only introduces a minimal risk of not obtaining the best possible answer. Furthermore, Question Waves does not require a re-ranking algorithm because the results arrive sorted

Resumen Objetivo Evaluar de forma comparada la demanda de atencion sanitaria publica en dos unidades de trastornos de la identidad de genero (Andalucia y Cataluna) durante la decada 2000-2009. Metodo Estudio descriptivo y comparativo de la demanda sanitaria, caracteristicas de los solicitantes y cirugias realizadas. Resultados Han solicitado asistencia sanitaria 828 pacientes en Andalucia y 549 en Cataluna. En ambas comunidades es similar el porcentaje de casos que cumplen criterios de transexualismo (88 vs. 89,8%), la frecuencia de casos excluidos del programa de reasignacion sexual (16,7 vs. 15,3%), la razon de sexos hombre/mujer (1,6:1 vs. 2,1:1), y la edad media (28 vs. 29 anos). Se han realizado 284 cirugias de reasignacion sexual en Andalucia y 50 en Cataluna. Conclusiones La demanda en Andalucia se ha mantenido estable y en Cataluna se ha incrementado en los ultimos anos. Las caracteristicas demograficas y clinicas de los pacientes transexuales son similares y acordes con la mayoria de estudios realizados en otros paises.

The trypanocidal activity of catechins on Trypanosoma cruzi bloodstream trypomastigotes has been previously reported. Herein, we present the effect of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg) on parasitemia and survival in a murine model of acute Chagas' disease as well as on the epimastigote form of the parasite. Upon intraperitoneal administration of daily doses of 0.8 mg/kg/day of EGCg for 45 days, mice survival rates increased from 11% to 60%, while parasitemia diminished to 50%. No side effects were observed in EGCg-treated animals. Fifty percent inhibition of epimastigotes growth was achieved with 311 microM EGCg 120 h after drug addition. No lysis, total culture growth inhibition or morphological changes were observed upon addition of 1-3mM EGCg at 24 h. This treatment also produced oligosomal fragmentation of epimastigotes DNA, suggesting a programmed cell death (PCD)-like process. All these findings point out EGCg as a potential new lead compound for chemotherapy of Chagas' disease.

Although the effects of hormone therapy on cardiovascular risk factors and bone metabolism have been studied, data are lacking on the gonadotropin profile after gonadectomy in the sex reassignment process (SRP). Accordingly, whether measurement of the gonadotropin profile is useful in order to adjust the postsurgical dose of gonadal hormones is unknown. We studied the evolution of LH, FSH, prolactin, testosterone, and estradiol in 50 transsexual persons, 41 male-to-female transsexuals (MtF) and 9 female-to-male transsexuals (FtM), following a proto-colized regimen of hormone therapy for 12–24 months before and after genitoplasty. The increase in gonadotropins after surgery was greater in the FtM than in the MtF (66% vs. 50%), with the increase continuing more than one year after surgery. No variable was significantly associated with this different level of gonadotropins.

Few epidemiological studies have examined the relationship of dietary fatty acids, especially MUFA, with the interrelation between insulin secretion and insulin resistance. We assessed the relation of dietary fatty acids with insulin secretion in a free-living population.This cross-sectional, population-based study was undertaken in Pizarra, a small town in Spain.Anthropometrical data were collected for 1226 persons selected randomly from the municipal census, 538 of whom (randomly chosen) were given a prospective, quantitative, 7-day nutritional questionnaire. The fatty acid composition of the serum phospholipids was used as a biological marker of the type of fat consumed. Beta-cell function (betaCFI) and insulin-resistance index (IRI) were estimated by the Homeostasis Model Assessment.To determine which factors influence the variability of the betaCFI, we analyzed the variance of the betaCFI according to sex, the presence of carbohydrate metabolism disorders and the different components of the diet, adjusting the models for age, body mass index (BMI) and IRI. The dietary MUFA and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) contributed to the variability of the betaCFI, whereas only the proportion of serum phospholipid MUFA, but neither the saturated fatty acids nor the PUFA accounted for part of the variability of the betaCFI in a multiple regression analysis.The results of this population-based study corroborate the results of other clinical and experimental studies suggesting a favorable relationship of MUFA with beta-cell insulin secretion.Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Junta de Andalucía and the Asociación Maimónides.

Aims Genes of the Apo AI/CIII/AIV cluster on chromosome 11 have been related to plasma lipid patterns. The close relationship between carbohydrate metabolism and lipid metabolism warrants investigation of the association between this cluster and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. We therefore examined the possible association between polymorphisms of this cluster and Type 2 diabetes mellitus as part of a study of the prevalence of diabetes and the metabolic syndrome in southern Spain. Methods A total of 1224 persons were selected randomly from the town of Pizarra in the province of Malaga, southern Spain. The sample errors for the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus and the three polymorphisms studied were all ≤ 4%. All subjects underwent phenotyping after an oral glucose tolerance test (75 g) (WHO 1998 criteria) and the XmnI and MspI polymorphisms of Apo AI and the SstI polymorphism of Apo CIII were genotyped. Results Those subjects with the mutated AA genotype of the MspI polymorphism (−75 GA) of Apo AI had a greater risk of impaired glucose tolerance [odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, CI = 1.02–3.8, P = 0.05], Type 2 diabetes mellitus, both known (OR = 7.38, CI = 1.3–39.7, P = 0.02) and unknown (OR = 3.7, CI = 1.4–9.9, P = 0.009). This risk was independent of age, sex, obesity, triglyceride level, HDL cholesterol and pattern of insulin resistance. Conclusions Pending confirmation in prospective studies, the AA genotype of the MspI polymorphism of the Apo AI gene, within the Apo A-I/C-III/A-IV cluster, seems to be a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

El protocolo aqui presentado es el desarrollo de la ponencia del mismo titulo expuesta en la mesa redonda sobre yododeficiencia del congreso de la Sociedad Espanola de Endocrinologia (SEEN) celebrado en Caceres. En el se recogen las experiencias de protocolizacion previas que se han producido en Espana para el estudio de los trastornos por deficit de yodo, que han sido de gran utilidad para sistematizar los estudios realizados en los ultimos anos. Con este protocolo se pretende actualizar la sistematica del estudio de los trastornos por deficit de yodo en el contexto de los nuevos conocimientos y de los importantes cambios sociosanitarios que se han producido en los ultimos anos.

[Aim]: To evaluate the relation between type of dietary fatty acid and degree of insulin resistance. Design: A cross-sectional study. [Methods]: Anthropometrical data were measured in 538 subjects, aged 18-65 years, selected randomly from the municipal census of Pizarra (Spain). An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was given to all subjects and measurements were made of glycemia, insulinemia and the proportion of fatty acids in plasma phospholipids. Insulin resistance (IR) was estimated by homeostasis model assessment. Samples of cooking oil being used were obtained from the kitchens. The strength of association between variables was measured by calculating the odds ratio (OR) from logistic models, and the relationships were measured by linear correlation coefficients. [Results]: Insulin resistance was significantly less in people who used olive oil compared with those who used sunflower oil or a mixture. Statistical significance remained in the group of people with normal OGTT after adjusting for obesity. In the whole sample, IR correlated negatively with the concentration of oleic acid (r = -0.11; P = 0.02) and positively with that of linoleic acid (r = 0.10; P = 0.02) from the cooking oil. In subjects with normal OGTT, IR correlated negatively with oleic acid from cooking oil (r = -0.17; P = 0.004) and from plasma phospholipids (r = -0.11; P = 0.01) and positively with the concentration of linoleic acid in cooking oil (r = 0.18; P = 0.004) and plasma phospholipids (r = 0.12; P = 0.005). The risk (OR) of having raised IR was significantly lower in people who consumed olive oil, either alone (OR = 0.50) or mixed (OR = 0.52) compared with those who consumed only sunflower oil. [Conclusion]: There is an association between the intake of oleic acid, the composition of oleic acid in plasma phospholipids and peripheral insulin action., This work was supported by grants from the Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (98/0475 and Red de Centros RCMN C03/08), Junta de Andalucía (6/98), Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (IFD97/0718) and Asociación Maimónides.

We study the Naming Game (NG) dynamics when two disjoint networks with nodes in consensus on competing opinions are connected with new links. We consider two sets of networks; one contains several networks with real-life communities, the other networks generated with the Watts-Strogatz and Barabasi-Albert models. For each set, we run NG on all the possible pairs of networks and observe whether a consensus is reached to determine network features that correlate highly with such outcome. The main conclusion is that the quality of network community structure informs network’s ability to resist or exert influence from/on others. Moreover, the outcomes depend on whether Speaker-First of Listener-First NG is run and on whether a speaker or listener is biased towards high or low degree nodes. The results reveal strategies that may be used to enable and accelerate convergence to consensus in social networks.

The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between auditory capacity and urinary iodine, taking into account thyroid volume and function, in a population of school-age children. Audiometry was carried out in 150 children (ages 6-14 years), together with measurements of thyroid volume, thyrotropin (TSH), free T3, free T4, thyroglobulin, antiperoxidase and anti-TSH receptor antibodies, as well as iodine in a casual urine sample. Children with a TSH5 microU/mL were excluded from the study. In the children with palpable goiter, there was an inverse relation between the auditory threshold at all frequencies and ioduria. Children with thyroglobulin values10 ng/mL had a higher auditory threshold at all frequencies. In the children with palpable goiter and ioduria100 microg/L, the levels of thyroglobulin and ioduria and the age accounted for 75% of the decibel (dB) variance at 2000 (Hertz), with similar results at other frequencies. The children with a thyroid sized at the95th percentile had an odds ratio of 3.86 (95% confidence interval: 2.59-5.10) of having a threshold20 dB. The results warn that iodine prophylaxis is needed to prevent not only goiter but also other iodine-deficiency disorders, such as involvement of the auditory threshold in school-age children.

Despite numerous studies, the importance which the tissue or the composition of the diet may have in the biological distribution of each fatty acid is not well known. To determine the importance of tissue origin and dietary fatty acids in the fatty acid composition of cell phospholipids, 54 male adult rats were fed isocaloric diets for one month varying only in their fatty acid compositions. The fat component of the six experimental groups was derived from olive oil, sunflower oil, fish oil, soybean oil, palmitic acid, or 82% palmitic acid plus 18% soybean oil, supplying the essential fatty acid. The fatty acid composition of phospholipids from thymocytes, pancreatic exocrine, muscle and adipose tissues was studied by gas-chromatography. The tissue of origin was a more important source of variation than diet in the fatty acid content of the cell phospholipids except for palmitic acid (16:0), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3). This study points out the complexity of the interrelations between different families of fatty acids and of the specificity of each tissue to changes in the composition of dietary fatty acids, as well as the inconvenience of speaking from the dietary point of view of groups of fatty acid families based on the position of the double bond, since their individual behaviour, including saturated fatty acids, is very different in the face of dietary manipulation. The study also highlights the different behaviour of each of the fatty acids in relation to the others in the diet in each of the tissues, a circumstance which should be taken into account when evaluating the biological effects in both epidemiological and experimental studies.

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis of an association between the -30GA polymorphism of the promoter of the glucokinase gene and the prevalence and incidence of obesity. We studied the -30GA polymorphism of the glucokinase gene promoter in 981 persons, of whom 866 were seen again 6 years later. All the persons underwent an oral glucose-tolerance test and the BMI (weight/height(2)) was recorded. The -30GA polymorphism of the glucokinase gene promoter was studied using RFLP-PCR. At the initial study, the probability of having a BMIor =25 in carriers of the A allele was significantly lower than expected by chance (odds ratio (OR) = 0.63; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.456-0.885). In those persons with a BMIor =30 at the first study, the probability at 6 years of losing weight (reaching a BMI30) was greater in carriers of the A allele (OR = 0.22; 95% CI = 0.087-0.576). The increase in weight over these 6 years, taken as a continuous variable, was significantly less only in those persons who were originally obese (P = 0.018). In conclusion, in a population from southern Spain, carriers of the A allele of the -30GA polymorphism in the promoter of the glucokinase gene had a lower risk for obesity and the likelihood of losing weight was greater in those obese persons who had the A allele (GA or AA).

The aim of the present study is to examine the influence which different concentrations of free fatty acids (FFAs) have on the insulin secretion response of the islets of Langerhans when the culture is prolonged over a week. Animals were killed by decapitation and pancreatic islets of Langerhans isolated. The islets were incubated in enriched RPMI and oleic or linoleic acid was added at concentrations of 0.04, 0.1, 0.375, and 1 mmol/l. The medium without FFAs was used as a control. The culture time was 7 days. For insulin secretion studies, islets were selected after preincubation in batches of six islets in 1 ml of KRB (Krebs-Ringer buffer) containing one of the following: 5.5, 11.1, 16 or 26.7 mmol/l glucose, 10 μ mol/l forskolin or 20 mmol/l arginine. The results showed a significant increase in insulin secretion observed after culture with 1 mmol/l oleic and linoleic acid compared to the other concentrations and the control culture for all the secretagogues used. However, at this same concentrations no increase was observed in insulin secretion as the glucose concentration rose, and this was noticeable with linoleic acid at concentrations of 0.375 mmol/l. In conclusion, culture of islets of Langerhans for a week with high concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids produces a hypersecretion of insulin which is not influenced by secretagogues such as glucose, arginine, or forskolin. The loss of gluco-sensitivity may become greater as the degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid used increases.

A nitric oxide synthase was partially purified from soluble extracts of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigote forms. The conversion of L-arginine to citrulline by this enzyme activity required NADPH and was blocked by EGTA. The reaction was activated by Ca2+, calmodulin, tetrahydrobiopterin, and FAD, and inhibited by N omega-methyl-L-arginine. L-Glutamate and N-methyl-D-aspartate stimulated in vivo conversion of L-arginine to citrulline by epimastigote cells. These stimulations could be blocked by EGTA, MK-801, and ketamine and enhanced by glycine. A sodium nitroprusside-activated guanylyl cyclase activity was detected in cell-free, soluble preparations of T. cruzi epimastigotes. L-Glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate, and sodium nitroprusside increased epimastigote cyclic GMP levels. MK-801 bound specifically to T. cruzi epimastigote cells. This binding was competed by ketamine and enhanced by glycine or L-serine. Evidence thus indicates that in T. cruzi epimastigotes, L-glutamate controls cyclic GMP levels through a pathway mediated by nitric oxide.

SUMARIO: I.- Introducción. II.- Antonio María Fabié Escudero (1832-1899). 1. Diputado y político. 2. Gobernador del Banco de España. 3. Perfil notafílico. III.- Fernando Merino Villarino, conde de Sagasta (1859-1929). 1. Diputado y político. 2. Gobernador del Banco de España. 3. Perfil notafílico. IV.- Conclusión. V.- Bibliografía.

International audience; Cruzipain (Cz), the major cysteine proteinase of Trypanosoma cruzi, is a glycoprotein that contains sulfated high-mannose-type oligosaccharides. We have previously determined that these sulfate groups are targets of specific immune responses. In order to evaluate the structural requirements for antibody recognition of Cz, a systematic structure-activity study of the chemical characteristics needed for antibody binding to the Cz sulfated epitope was performed by immunoassays. With this aim, different synthesized molecules were coupled to the proteins BSA and aprotinin and confronted with (a) mouse sera specific for Cz and its carboxy-terminal (C-T) domain, (b) antibodies raised in rabbits immunized with Cz and its C-terminal domain and (c) IgGs purified from human Chagas disease sera. Our results indicate that a glucosamine containing an esterifying sulfate group in position O-6 and an N-acetyl group was the preferred epitope for the immune recognition of sera specific for Cz and its C-T domain. Although to a minor extent, other anionic compounds bearing sulfate groups in different positions and number as well as different anionic charged groups including carboxylated or phosphorylated monosaccharides, disaccharides and oligosaccharides were recognized. In conclusion, we found that synthetic anionic sugar conjugates containing N-acetyl d-glucosamine-6-sulfate sodium salt (GlcNAc6S) competitively inhibit the binding of affinity purified rabbit anti-C-T IgG to the C-T extension of Cz. Extending these findings to the context of natural infection, immune assays performed with Chagas disease serum confirmed that the structure of synthetic GlcNAc6S mimics the N-glycan-linked sulfated epitope displayed in the C-T domain of Cz.

Sulphoglycosphingolipids, present on the surface of diverse cells, participate in the regulation of various cellular events. However, little is known about the structure and the role of sulphoglycosphingolipids in trypanosomatids. Herein, sulphated dihexosylceramide structures - composed mainly of sphingosine as the long chain base acylated with stearic acid - have been determined for the first time in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes by UV-MALDI-TOF-MS analysis. Interestingly, inhibition ELISA assays using cruzipain as antigen and polyclonal rabbit antibodies specific for cruzipain, the major cysteine proteinase of T. cruzi, or for its C-terminal domain, have demonstrated (i) that sulphate epitopes are shared between cruzipain and sulphatides of T. cruzi, (ii) that cross-reactivity maps to the C-terminal domain and (iii) the existence of other antigenic determinants in the glycolipidic structures. These features provide evidence that sulphate groups are antigenic in sulphate-containing parasite glycoconjugates. Furthermore, IgG2 antibody levels inversely correlate with disease severity in chronic Chagas disease patients, suggesting that IgG2 antibodies specific for sulphated epitopes might be associated with protective immunity and might be considered as potential surrogates of the course of chronic Chagas disease.